Sermon and Worship Resources (2024)

Births in the ancient world were the domain of women. The women who bore children were often assisted in the birthing process by midwives (Gen. 35:17; 38:28; Exod. 1:1520).

Many women utilized a birthing stool (Exod. 1:16). Upon birth, the newborn often was washed with water, rubbed with salt, and wrapped in cloths (Ezek. 16:4; Luke 2:7, 12). The OT required women to undergo a rite of purification following childbirth (Exod. 13:2, 20; 34:20; Lev. 12:6–8; Luke 2:22–24). This purification lasted forty days after the birth of a son and eighty days after the birth of a daughter and concluded with the sacrifice of both a burnt offering and a sin offering.

Birthing was valued, and women who were considered to be infertile often faced great shame (1Sam. 1:10–11; Luke 1:25). Pain in childbirth was associated with the sin of Eve (Gen. 3:16), and conversely, absence of pain was interpreted as a sign that a woman was particularly righteous. According to Josephus, Moses was born with no pain to his mother, and the Protevangelium of James indicates the same about Mary’s labor with Jesus.

The Bible sometimes employs the language of birth as a spiritual metaphor. In John 3:3–6 Jesus instructs Nicodemus about the need for spiritual birth by explaining that he must be born again. In Rom. 8:22 Paul describes the whole of creation as experiencing the pain of childbirth as it awaits redemption, and in Gal. 4:19 he says that he is in labor for a second time with the Galatians as he desires the formation of Christ in them.

Love for those who suffer. The OT often refers to God’s compassion, especially toward those who, because of their sinfulness, deserve the opposite treatment. In Exod. 33:19 Yahweh takes pity on the Israelites after they have rebelled, making an idol for themselves and praising it for their deliverance. He renews his covenant with them, but he reminds them of his sovereignty in doing so: “I will have mercy on whom I will have mercy, and I will have compassion on whom I will have compassion” (cf. Rom. 9:15).

The NT points to God’s compassion at significant junctures in the Gospels and the Epistles. Jesus himself has compassion for the crowds who “were harassed and helpless, like sheep without a shepherd” (Matt. 9:36). He takes pity on the crowds, healing their sick and feeding them miraculously (14:1421; cf. 15:32). The same connection between compassion and healing occurs in Matt. 20:34; Mark 1:41, this time on an individual level. The apostle Paul underscores this attribute of God, raising it to a title of sorts. The Father of our Lord Jesus Christ is “the Father of compassion and the God of all comfort” (2Cor. 1:3). James says that the Lord is “full of compassion and mercy” (5:11), and John depicts God as one who will wipe away every tear caused by persecution and trial (Rev. 7:17; 21:4). Because God is always dealing with broken sinners, his compassion for them coincides with his love (see Ps. 145:8); and this rescuing of the guilty sets an example for his people. They must go and do likewise, loving the unlovely, unwise, and even unrighteous.

The Letter to the Hebrews and the Letter to the Romans constitute the two great pillars of theology in the NT. Hebrews brings a high Christology and increases Christian understanding of Christ’s role as priest and pioneer of faith. From this book, deductions can be made regarding the early church’s understanding of OT interpretation and its view of typology.

Hebrews ends like a letter, but it does not begin like one. In particular, it lacks the names of the writer and the recipients. From the content, though, it is evident that this work is meant for a certain audience, familiar with the author. The author shows a loving pastoral concern for his readers, teaching them, exhorting them, and rebuking them when necessary. He gives them models of faith to encourage them and instructs them to encourage one another. The author describes the work as “my word of exhortation” (13:22). The book is often identified as a sermon.

The letter is, strictly speaking, anonymous. No author is mentioned, and few clues as to his identity exist. He is known by his readers (13:19) and has a pastor’s heart for them (6:9). He and his audience are second-generation Christians; that is, they did not hear Jesus during his ministry but rather are dependent upon those who did (2:3). He is a companion of Timothy (13:23) and thus possibly in the circle of Paul. The original readers almost certainly were a house church, part of a network of churches in an urban setting, likely either Jerusalem or Rome, with Rome being slightly preferred.

The author brings his unique perspective to the work of Christ—his special roles as both high priest and sacrifice. Because Jesus lives forever, he has a permanent priesthood (7:24), which is not a function of his ancestry but rather is “on the basis of the power of an indestructible life” (7:16). He meets the requirements of a priest, being “holy, blameless, pure, set apart from sinners, exalted above the heavens” (7:26). He is a “priest forever, in the order of Melchizedek” (7:17, quoting Ps. 110:4). Melchizedek is a once-mentioned figure from Gen. 14:18. He was the king of Salem, a “priest of God Most High.” Abraham, and by extension Levi, paid him a tithe and received a blessing from him. Therefore, Melchizedek is superior to Levi, and his priestly order is superior to Levi’s. This priesthood, in fact, replaces the Levitical priesthood because the earlier priesthood could not produce perfection (Heb. 7:11), being “weak and useless” (7:18).

The Levitical priests had offered their sacrifices repeatedly, year after year, first for their own sins, then for those of the people. They had used the blood of bulls and goats to cleanse the tabernacle and accessories, because without the shedding of blood there can be no forgiveness of sin (9:22). There had been many priests, as death claimed each one. The priests, in all their weaknesses, had been appointed by the law. The sanctuary in which they serve is a “copy and shadow” of what is in heaven (8:5).

In contrast to the Levitical high priest, Jesus sits at “the right hand of the throne of the Majesty in heaven” (8:1) and serves in the true tabernacle not made by human hands. He has been appointed not by the law but by the oath of God, which came after the law. He has no need to offer sacrifices day after day; his sacrifice was “once for all” (7:27), coming at the culmination of the ages to do away with sin (9:26). In fact, the repeated nature of the Levitical sacrifices serves as proof of their ineffectiveness. Had they been effective, they would have ceased. But “it is impossible for the blood of bulls and goats to take away sins” (10:4), even when offered in accordance with the law (10:8). The worshipers had been left with the same guilty consciences. Christ had “entered the Most Holy Place once for all by his own blood” and obtained eternal redemption for all believers (9:12), sprinkling their hearts to cleanse them from guilty consciences (10:22).

Because of this, Christ is the mediator of the new covenant, prophesied in Jer. 31:31, which is superior to the Mosaic covenant. The first covenant has been made obsolete and will soon disappear (Heb. 8:13), as the new covenant is “established on better promises” (8:6). The tabernacle had been designed to demonstrate that there was no way into the most holy place for anyone but the high priest. Now, the blood of Jesus has opened a way through the curtain, allowing believers to “draw near to God with a sincere heart and with the full assurance of faith” (10:22).

Moses played a leadership role in the founding of Israel as a “kingdom of priests and a holy nation” (Exod. 19:6). Indeed, the narrative of Exodus through Deuteronomy is the story of God using Moses to found the nation of Israel. It begins with an account of his birth (Exod. 2) and ends with an account of his death (Deut. 34). Moses’ influence and importance extend well beyond his lifetime, as later Scripture demonstrates.

Moses was born in a dangerous time, and according to Pharaoh’s decree, he should not have survived long after his birth. He was born to Amram and Jochebed (Exod. 6:20). Circumventing Pharaoh’s decree, Jochebed placed the infant Moses in a reed basket and floated him down the river. God guided the basket down the river and into the presence of none other than Pharaoh’s daughter (Exod. 2:56), who, at the urging of Moses’ sister, hired Jochebed to take care of the child.

The next major episode in the life of Moses concerns his defense of an Israelite worker who was being beaten by an Egyptian (Exod. 2:11–25). In the process of rescuing the Israelite, Moses killed the Egyptian. When it became clear that he was known to be the killer, he fled Egypt and ended up in Midian, where he became a member of the family of a Midianite priest-chief, Jethro, by marrying his daughter Zipporah.

Although Moses was not looking for a way back into Egypt, God had different plans. One day, while Moses was tending his sheep, God appeared to him in the form of a burning bush and commissioned him to go back to Egypt and lead his people to freedom. Moses expressed reluctance, and so God grudgingly enlisted his older brother, Aaron, to accompany him as his spokesperson.

Upon Moses’ return to Egypt, Pharaoh stubbornly refused to allow the Israelites to leave Egypt. God directed Moses to announce a series of plagues that ultimately induced Pharaoh to allow the Israelites to depart. After they left, Pharaoh had a change of mind and cornered them on the shores of the Red Sea (Sea of Reeds). It was at the Red Sea that God demonstrated his great power by splitting the sea and allowing the Israelites to escape before closing it again in judgment on the Egyptians. Moses signaled the presence of God by lifting his rod high in the air (Exod. 14:16). This event was long remembered as the defining moment when God released Israel from Egyptian slavery (Pss. 77; 114), and it even became the paradigm for future divine rescues (Isa. 40:3–5; Hos. 2:14–15).

After the crossing of the Red Sea, Moses led Israel back to Mount Sinai, the location of his divine commissioning. At this time, Moses went up the mountain as a prophetic mediator for the people (Deut. 18:16). He received the Ten Commandments, the rest of the law, and instructions to build the tabernacle (Exod. 19–24). All these were part of a new covenantal arrangement that today we refer to as the Mosaic or Sinaitic covenant.

However, as Moses came down the mountain with the law, he saw that the people, who had grown tired of waiting, were worshiping a false god that they had created in the form of a golden calf (Exod. 32). With the aid of the Levites, who that day assured their role as Israel’s priestly helpers, he brought God’s judgment against the offenders and also interceded in prayer with God to prevent the total destruction of Israel.

Thus began Israel’s long story of rebellion against God. God was particularly upset with the lack of confidence that the Israelites had shown when the spies from the twelve tribes gave their report (Num. 13). They did not believe that God could handle the fearsome warriors who lived in the land, and so God doomed them to forty years of wandering in the wilderness, enough time for the first generation to die. Not even Moses escaped this fate, since he had shown anger against God and attributed a miracle to his own power and not to God when he struck a rock in order to get water (Num. 20:1–13).

Thus, Moses was not permitted to enter the land of promise, though he had led the Israelites to the very brink of entry on the plains of Moab. There he gave his last sermon, which we know as the book of Deuteronomy. The purpose of his sermon was to tell the second generation of Israelites who were going to enter the land that they must obey God’s law or suffer the consequences. The form of the sermon was that of a covenant renewal, and so Israel on this occasion reaffirmed its loyalty to God.

After this, Moses went up on Mount Nebo, from which he could see the promised land, and died. Deuteronomy concludes with the following statements: “Since then, no prophet has risen in Israel like Moses, whom the Lord knew face to face.... For no one has ever shown the mighty power or performed the awesome deeds that Moses did in the sight of all Israel” (Deut. 34:10, 12).

The NT honors Moses as God’s servant but also makes the point that Jesus is one who far surpasses Moses as a mediator between God and people (Acts 3:17–26; Heb. 3).

The date of Moses is a matter of controversy because the biblical text does not name the pharaohs of the story. Many date him to the thirteenth century BC and associate him with RamessesII, but others take 1Kings 6:1 at face value and date him to the end of the fifteenth century BC, perhaps during the reign of ThutmoseIII.

Eden’s rivers. Genesis 2:10 14 describes the garden in Eden as the source of an unnamed river that subsequently divided into four “headwaters”: the Pishon, the Gihon, the Tigris, and the Euphrates. This description defies any attempt to locate the purported site of Eden in terms of historical geography. The Tigris and the Euphrates do not diverge from a common source, but instead converge before emptying into the Persian Gulf. Moreover, the Gihon, if it is to be identified with the sacred spring of the same name in Jerusalem (1Kings 1:45), is several hundred miles away from the Tigris and the Euphrates. The Pishon is otherwise unknown. If, as various commentators since antiquity have suggested, the Gihon and the Pishon are to be identified with other great rivers in the same class of importance as the Tigris and the Euphrates (the Nile, the Ganges, etc.), then this would further confound any attempt to understand Gen. 2:10–14 in terms of historical geography.

The Nile River. The Nile (Heb. ye’or) is fed by two major tributaries: the White Nile, which begins at Lake Victoria, and the Blue Nile, which begins in Ethiopia. At over four thousand miles, the Nile is the longest river in the world. The ancient civilization of Egypt depended entirely on the flow of the Nile and upon its annual flood (the “gift of the Nile”) for irrigation of crops. Even today, arable land along the Nile is confined in some places to an area no more than a few miles from its banks.

Two of the plagues sent by God upon the Egyptians took place at the Nile, an appropriate setting for a confrontation between the God of Israel and the Egyptian pharaoh, himself a living representation of the Egyptian pantheon. God told Moses to confront Pharaoh at the Nile (Exod. 7:15), and the first plague with which God afflicted the Egyptians consisted of turning the Nile into blood, causing its fish to die and rendering its water unsuitable for drinking. The Egyptians were forced to dig wells along its banks (7:20–21). The second plague involved the multiplication of frogs in the Nile, to the point of great inconvenience (8:3).

Isaiah continues the theme of God punishing the Egyptians by attacking the Nile: “The waters of the river will dry up, and the riverbed will be parched and dry. The canals will stink; the streams of Egypt will dwindle and dry up. The reeds and rushes will wither, also the plants along the Nile” (Isa. 19:5–7).

The Euphrates River. The Euphrates is the westernmost of the two great rivers of Mesopotamia (along with the Tigris [see below]), the land “between the rivers.” As mentioned above, the Euphrates was one of the four rivers flowing from the garden of Eden, according to Gen. 2:14. Along the Euphrates were located the ancient cities of Carchemish, Emar (Tell Meskeneh), Mari, Babylon, and Ur. The Euphrates runs over seventeen hundred miles from northwest to southeast, beginning in the mountains of eastern Turkey before joining with the Tigris and entering the Persian Gulf.

In the Bible, the Euphrates represents the northern boundary of the territory granted to Abraham (Gen. 15:18; see also Exod. 23:31). David extended his territory as far as the Euphrates when he fought the Aramean king Hadadezer (2Sam. 8:3), and so the dimensions of Israel at its apex under Solomon are described as controlling all the kingdoms “from the Euphrates River to the land of the Philistines, as far as the border of Egypt [i.e., the southern limit of his realm]” (1Kings 4:21).

The Tigris River. Along with the Euphrates, the Tigris (Heb. khiddeqel) was one of the two rivers of ancient Mesopotamia. The Tigris lies east of the Euphrates and runs over a course of approximately 1,150 miles from northwest to southeast, finally joining with the Euphrates and emptying into the Persian Gulf. In antiquity, the cities of Calah, Nineveh, and Asshur lay along the Tigris. The Tigris is mentioned twice in the Bible: first, as one of the four headwaters emanating from the garden of Eden (Gen. 2:14) and, second, as the location of Daniel’s visionary experience (Dan. 10:4).

The Jordan River. The Jordan (Heb. yarden) runs southward from the Hula Valley into the Sea of Galilee (also known as the Sea of Tiberias; modern Lake Kinneret) and from there through a river valley (the “plain of the Jordan” [see Gen. 13:10]) to the Dead Sea.

In the OT, several memorable stories are set near the Jordan. In addition to Joshua’s dramatic crossing of the Jordan (Josh. 3:1–17), the “fords of the Jordan” were strategic locations, and it was there that the Gileadites slaughtered forty-two thousand Ephraimites as they attempted to return to their territory on the western side of the Jordan (Judg. 12:5). Elisha instructed Naaman, the leprous Aramean general, to bathe seven times in the Jordan for the healing of his condition (2Kings 5:10). When Elisha’s companions wished to build shelters for themselves, they went to the Jordan, where they knew they would find abundant vegetation and poles (2Kings 6:2; cf. Zech. 11:3). When one of them dropped an iron ax head into the water, Elisha caused it to float to the surface (2Kings 6:6–7).

In the NT, the Jordan was the site of much of John the Baptist’s ministry (Matt. 3:5–6; Mark 1:5; Luke 3:3). John 1:28 specifies that John was on the eastern bank (also John 3:26; 10:40). It was in the waters of the Jordan that he baptized those who came to him, including Jesus (Matt. 3:13; Mark 1:9; Luke 3:21).

The wadi of Egypt. In a number of texts the “wadi of Egypt” (or “brook of Egypt”) represents the far southern limit of Israelite territory. Some ancient interpreters understood this as referring to the Pelusian branch of the Nile River delta, while most modern scholars favor the Besor River, farther east, in present-day Israel. Several biblical passages refer to the Shihor River as marking a boundary between Egypt and Israelite territory (Josh. 13:3; 19:26; 1Chron. 13:5; Isa. 23:3; Jer. 2:18).

The Orontes River. Although it is not mentioned in the Bible, the Orontes marked an important international boundary in the biblical world. The Orontes begins in the Bekaa Valley in present-day Lebanon, then flows northward between the Lebanon and the Anti-Lebanon mountain ranges before turning sharply westward to empty into the Mediterranean Sea. Along the Orontes lay the kingdom of Hamath (see, e.g., 2Sam. 8:9; 2Chron. 8:3; Jer. 39:5).

From an Egyptian term meaning “great house,” “Pharaoh” refers to Egypt’s supreme leader. The Pentateuch refers to the pharaohs by title only. (The omission of the personal name of the pharaoh may reflect the Egyptian practice of not naming their enemies.)

Beyond the Pentateuch, six other pharaohs are mentioned, some by name. (1)Solomon married the daughter of a pharaoh who led him to betray God (1Kings 3:1). (2)Jeroboam rebelled against Solomon and received sanctuary from Pharaoh Shishak, who later raided Judah under Rehoboam (1Kings 11:18, 40). (3)Hoshea, the last king of the northern kingdom, sought help from Pharaoh So (Osorkon), bringing on him the wrath of King Shalmaneser of Assyria (2Kings 17:4). (4)The Assyrian king Sennacherib sent an envoy to Jerusalem who chided Hezekiah for depending on an unnamed and unreliable pharaoh (2Kings 18:21; Isa. 36:6). (5)Pharaoh Necho meddled in the affairs of Judah when he killed Josiah and deposed his son Jehoahaz, replacing him with Jehoiakim (2Kings 23:2935). (6)Pharaoh Hophra was the Egyptian leader upon whom Zedekiah vainly depended against the Babylonians (Jer. 44:30).

There are numerous relationships in the OT that could be characterized as following a servant-master model. These included service to the monarchy (2Sam. 9:2), within households (Gen. 16:8), in the temple (1Sam. 2:15), or to God himself (Judg. 2:8). We also see extensive slavery laws in passages such as Exod. 21:111; Lev. 25:39–55; Deut. 15:12–18. The slavery laws were concerned with the proper treatment of Hebrew slaves and included guidelines for their eventual release and freedom. For example, Hebrew slaves who had sold themselves to others were to serve for a period of six years. On the seventh year, known also as the Sabbath Year, they were to be released. Once released, they were not to be sent away empty-handed, but rather were to be supported from the owner’s “threshing floor” and “winepress.” Slaves also had certain rights that gave them special privileges and protection from their masters. Captured slaves, for example, were allowed rest on the Sabbath (Exod. 20:10) and during special holidays (Deut. 16:11, 14). They could also be freed if their master permanently hurt or crippled them (Exod. 21:26–27). Also, severe punishment was imposed on a person who beat a slave to death (Exod. 21:20–21).

Slavery was very common in the first century AD, and there were many different kinds of slaves. For example, slaves might live in an extended household (oikos) in which they were born, or they might choose to sell themselves into this situation (1Pet. 2:18–25). Although slavery was a significant part of society in the first century AD, we never see Jesus or the apostles encourage slavery. Instead, both Paul and Peter encouraged godly character and obedience for slaves within this system (Eph. 6:5–8; Col. 3:22–25; 1Tim. 6:1–2; Philemon; 1Pet. 2:18–21). Likewise, masters were encouraged to be kind and fair to their slaves (Eph. 6:9; Col. 4:1). Later in the NT, slave trading was condemned by the apostle Paul as contrary to “sound doctrine” and “the gospel concerning the glory of the blessed God” (1Tim. 1:10–11).

Jesus embodied the idea of a servant in word and deed. He fulfilled the role of the “Servant of the Lord,” the Suffering Servant predicted by the prophet Isaiah (Isa. 42:1–4; 50:4–9; 52:13–53:12). He also took on the role of a servant in the Gospels, identifying himself as the Son of Man who came to serve (Mark 10:45) and washing the disciples’ feet (John 13:4–5). Paul says that in the incarnation Jesus took on “the very nature of a servant” (Phil. 2:7).

The special relationship between Jesus and his followers is captured in the servant-master language of the NT Epistles, especially in Paul’s letters (Rom. 1:1; Phil. 1:1; Titus 1:1). This language focuses not so much on the societal status of these servants as on the allegiance and honor owed to Christ Jesus.

Water is mentioned extensively in the Bible due to its prevalence in creation and its association with life and purity. The cosmic waters of Gen. 1 are held back by the sky (Gen. 1:67; cf. Pss. 104:6, 13; 148:4). God is enthroned on these waters in his cosmic temple (Pss. 29:10; 104:3, 13; cf. Gen. 1:2; Ps. 78:69; Isa. 66:1). These same waters were released in the time of Noah (Gen. 7:10–12; Ps. 104:7–9).

Water is also an agent of life and fertility and is therefore associated with the presence of God. Both God himself and his temple are described as the source of life-giving water (Jer. 2:13; 17:13; Joel 3:18; cf. Isa. 12:2–3). Ezekiel envisions this water flowing from beneath the temple and streaming down into the Dead Sea, where it brings life and fecundity (Ezek. 47:1–12; cf. Zech. 14:8). The book of Revelation, employing the same image, describes “the river of the water of life, as clear as crystal, flowing from the throne of God and of the Lamb” (22:1). This imagery is also illustrated in archaeological remains associated with temples. Cisterns are attested beneath the Dome of the Rock (presumably the location of the Jerusalem temple) and beneath the Judahite temple at Arad. Other temples, such as the Israelite high place at Tel Dan, are located close to freshwater springs. The Gihon spring in the City of David may also be associated with the Jerusalem temple (Ps. 46:4; cf. Gen. 2:13).

This OT imagery forms the background for Jesus’ teaching regarding eternal life in the writings of the apostle John. Jesus claims to be the source of living water, and he offers it freely to everyone who thirsts (John 4:10–15; 7:37; Rev. 21:6; 22:17; cf. Rev. 7:17). This water, which produces “a spring of water welling up to eternal life” (John 4:14), is the work of the Holy Spirit in the believer (John 7:38–39).

Water is also described in the Bible as an agent of cleansing. It is extensively employed in purification rituals in the OT. In the NT, the ritual of water baptism signifies the purity and new life of the believer (Matt. 3:11, 16; Mark 1:8–10; Luke 3:16; John 1:26, 31–33; 3:23; Acts 1:5; 8:36–39; 10:47; 11:16; 1Pet. 3:20–21; cf. Eph. 5:26; Heb. 10:22).

Finally, the NT also reveals Jesus as the Lord of water. He walks on water (Matt. 14:28–29; John 6:19), turns water into wine (John 2:7–9; 4:46), and controls water creatures (Matt. 17:27; John 21:6). Most important, Jesus commands “the winds and the water, and they obey him” (Luke 8:25; cf. Ps. 29:3).

In the Bible, woman is first encountered along with man in Gen. 1:2628. God created “man” in the plural, male and female, and commanded them to reproduce and to fill the earth and subdue it. Being created male and female is set in parallel to being created in the image of God. In the ancient Near East, perhaps the king would be thought of as the image of God. But in Genesis, not only is the first man the image of God, but the first woman participates in the image as well. This is all but unthinkable in the ancient world, and it suggests an unparalleled dignity and worth in womankind.

Genesis records that the human race fell through the instrumentality of a man, a woman, and the serpent. The serpent approached the woman, not the man. The woman was convinced by the serpent and ate the forbidden fruit. She gave some to her husband, who also ate it without saying a word. Thus, the woman can be blamed in part for the fall of the race. Adam was condemned because he “listened to [his] wife” (Gen. 3:17). Her judgment, for heeding the serpent, was pain in childbirth and a desire for her husband, who would rule over her (Gen. 3:16). The exact parameters of this judgment are unclear, but it appears that her desire will be for his position of leadership and will be perpetually frustrated.

Often in the Bible, women are motivated by their desire to have children. Rachel demanded of Jacob, “Give me children, or I’ll die!” (Gen. 30:1). She saw herself in competition with her sister, Leah, in this respect (30:8). The “fruit of the womb” is a reward, and like arrows, the blessed man’s quiver is full of them (Ps. 127:1–5). Note also the beatitude of Ps. 128:3: “Your wife will be like a fruitful vine within your house; your children will be like olive shoots around your table.”

In Genesis, the reproductive capability of slave girls is at the disposal of their owners. Thus, Rachel and Leah’s maidservants became surrogate mothers for a number of their sons (Gen. 30:3–10). Sarah also became frustrated at her inability to conceive, so she gave Hagar to Abraham. The result was great familial turmoil, finally resulting in the banishment of both Hagar and Ishmael, whom she bore to Abraham.

In the beginning, God joined one man and one woman together as husband and wife. But soon this idea was corrupted, and Lamech, a man from Cain’s lineage, is credited with the first polygamous marriage (Gen. 4:19). Although the patriarchs (such as Jacob) did have more than one wife, the household discontent and strife are what is highlighted in those stories, such as with Hagar. In the NT, an elder is to be, literally, a “one-woman man” (1Tim. 3:2; ESV, KJV: “the husband of one wife”), meaning monogamous.

The Torah contains significant legislation regarding women. The daughters of Zelophehad argued that their father died without sons, so in Canaan they were disinherited. God agreed and decreed that in Israel daughters would inherit land in the absence of sons. Only if there were no children at all would the land pass to other kin (Num. 27:1–11).

When a man made a vow, he must fulfill it, but a young woman’s vow was subject to her father. If he remained silent, the vow stood, but if he expressed disapproval, then she was freed from it. If she was married, her husband governed her vows, but if she was divorced, then there was no responsible male over her, and her vow was treated as a man’s (Num. 30:1–16).

Sexual intercourse was also regulated in the law of Moses, insofar as the act rendered both parties ritually impure (Lev. 15:18). Both must bathe and were unclean until evening. A woman’s menstrual discharge also made her unclean for a week. Everything she sat or lay upon was unclean, as was anyone who touched these things. She must wash and offer sacrifice to become clean again (15:18–31).

If a man discovered on his wedding night that his bride was not a virgin, he could accuse her publicly. If her parents provided evidence that she had in fact been a virgin, then the man was severely punished for lying and not allowed to divorce her (otherwise, it was simply a matter of writing a letter to divorce her [Deut. 24:1]). If her virginity could not be proved, she was to be put to death by stoning (Deut. 22:13–21).

In the case of a rape of a betrothed virgin, if it occurred in the city, both the rapist and the victim were stoned, since apparently she had failed to cry out for help and thus, the law assumed, consented to sexual intercourse. If she was raped in the countryside, only the man was killed. But if he raped a woman who was not spoken for, his punishment was that he must marry her without possibility of divorce (Deut. 22:23–29).

Numbers 5:11–31 treats cases where a husband was suspicious that his wife had been unfaithful—that is, a matter of covenantal jealousy. The unprovable was left to God to punish.

In the Bible, women sometimes are afforded dignity beyond what is expected in an ancient Near Eastern provenance. Hagar is the only woman in all ancient Near Eastern literature who gave a name to a deity (Gen. 16:13). In Judg. 4:4, Deborah “judged” Israel (despite the NIV’s “leading,” the underlying Hebrew verb indicates “judging,” as in the NRSV). Even as judge, however, she did not lead the army against the enemy general Sisera; Barak did so. But Barak was unwilling to undertake this mission unless Deborah went with him (4:8). Thus, God ensured that the prestige of killing Sisera went to a woman, Jael (4:9, 21). Another prominent woman was Huldah, to whom the priests turned for guidance when the law was rediscovered (2Kings 22:14).

Many biblical stories feature heroines. Mighty Pharaoh was undermined by two midwives in his attempt to destroy Israel (Exod. 1:15–21). Ruth the Moabite woman gave her name to the book that recounts her trek from Moab to Israel, including her famous oath of loyalty (Ruth 1:16–17). Esther too was a courageous woman whose book bears her name. Heroines are especially prominent in the Gospels, and the women there have the distinction of being the first to witness the risen Lord. Luke’s birth narrative is largely organized around Mary. Priscilla (with her husband) taught and helped to shape the early church (Acts 18:26). Paul lists many women in Rom. 16, calling them “deaconess,” “fellow worker,” and possibly even “apostle.”

Scripture also at times portrays various women as being temptations to men. Eve handed the fruit to Adam (Gen. 3:6). In the wilderness Israel worshiped Moabite gods in conjunction with sexual activity (Num. 25:1–9). Later, Israelites intermarried with Canaanite women, directly leading to worship of their idols (Judg. 3:6). Bathsheba was a temptation to David, and this began a series of events that marred his career as a man after God’s own heart. Solomon loved many foreign women, who turned him to worship their gods. After the exile, the Israelites were admonished by Nehemiah to put away their foreign wives lest history repeat itself (Neh. 13:26).

Women and marriage are used in the Bible as images for spiritual things. Paul writes that marital love mirrors the church’s relationship with Christ (Eph. 5:32–33). A man should love his wife as Christ loved the church. Revelation portrays the climax to human history in the figure of two women: the bride of Christ, adorned with righteous deeds for her husband (19:7–8), and the whor* Babylon, drunk on the blood of the saints (17:5–6). The consummation of the age is when one is judged and the other enters her eternal marital bliss.

The book of Proverbs also separates humankind into two groups, symbolized by two women. Along the path of life, the youth hears the voices of Woman Folly (9:13–18) and of Woman Wisdom (1:20–33) calling out to him. Folly is incarnated in the flesh-and-blood temptation of the immoral woman (7:6–27), whereas Woman Wisdom has her counterpart at the end of the book in the detailed description of the woman of virtue (31:10–31). There, the woman who fears God is set as a prize far above earthly wealth—the highest blessing of the wise.

Paul uses two women from sacred history to help explain his gospel of law versus grace. Hagar the slave woman represents the Mosaic covenant given at Sinai, and the earthly Jerusalem—that is, a mind-set of slavery that futilely attempts to earn God’s favor by works of the law. Sarah was the free woman, and her son was the promised son, who represents the heavenly Jerusalem, the new covenant, and freedom from the requirements of the law (Gal. 4:21–31). Again, two women symbolize two paths and two peoples—one being slaves, the other being God’s free people.

God announced to Noah that he was going to destroy all theinhabitants of the earth and commanded him to build an “ark”(Heb. tebah; Gen. 6:14–16). Apart from the Genesis floodnarrative, Exod. 2:3–5 is the only other passage in the Biblewhere this word is used, there for the ark of bulrushes in which theinfant Moses was placed. Both arks were made waterproof by a coatingof pitch (tar). An ark is something built to save people fromdrowning. It is not the name of a kind of boat as such (e.g., yacht),but rather a geometric boxlike shape. The ark was without rudder,sail, or any navigational aid.

Noahwas told to make it of “gopher wood” (Heb. goper), whichthe early Jewish Aramaic translations (Targumim) identified as cedar(NIV, NRSV, NET: “cypress wood”). The Hebrew word goperoccurs only here in the Bible, but the Akkadian equivalent (kupru) isfound at a similar point in the Epic of Gilgamesh. It was, then, theright kind of wood for a boat. The ark was to have “rooms”—thatis, cubicles (lit., “nests”)—for the differentanimals to be housed in and kept apart from other animals.

Afterthe general description of the ark (Gen. 6:14), details were providedby God on how to build it (6:15). Its length (300 cubits), width (50cubits), and height (30 cubits) were specified. “Cubit”literally means “forearm” (the distance from elbow to tipof middle finger), so the ark was approximately 450 feet (140 meters)long, 75 feet (23 meters) wide, and 45 feet (13.5 meters) high (seeNIV mg.). We cannot be exactly sure if “roof” (6:16) isthe correct translation of the Hebrew word tsohar, which may refer toa hatchway or skylight (Vulg.: fenestra [“window”]; notethe NIV 1984 mg.: “Make an opening for light”). Anotherpossibility is “pitched roof.” The usual Hebrew word,gag, is not used because that refers to a flat roof (see Josh. 2:6,8; 2 Sam. 11:2). The instruction to “finish it to a cubitabove” (RSV) refers to the pitch of the roof or its overhang.The “window” (Heb. khallon) that Noah opens in Gen. 8:6is probably to be equated with this skylight in the roof, not awindow in the side (since Noah cannot see out). In Gen. 8:13 Noahremoves the “covering” (Heb. mikseh) from the ark, so asto see the surface of the earth. (Gen. 5:1-32; Gen. 6:1-22; Gen7:1-24; Gen. 8:1-22).

Theark was to have a door in its side, which was closed by God (Gen.6:16; 7:16). The structure was also to have three decks, whichsuggests that the ark was viewed as a microcosmos, with its threelevels matching sky, earth, and sea. Genesis 6:17 explains why an arkis needed. The destruction will be by means of water, and the arkwill carry Noah and his family (eight persons), as well as at leastone pair of every living creature. The NT refers to Noah’sconstruction of the ark (Heb. 11:7; 1 Pet. 3:20) and hisentering it (Matt. 24:38; Luke 17:27).

The KJV translation for a young girl, an unmarried woman orvirgin, or a female servant. At least five Hebrew words are used torefer to such women. Betulah refers to an unmarried virgin or a youngwoman who has had no sexual experience (Gen. 24:16; Job 31:1; Exod.22:16–17). A man who forcefully lay with such a woman wasexpected to marry her (Deut. 22:13–19). When David was old, avirgin was found to lie at his side to keep him warm (1Kings1:2). Israel as a nation is identified as a young virgin (Jer. 31:4).The second term is ’amah, translated “bondwoman,”“maidservant,” “maid,” “bondmaid,”“servant,” or “female servant” (Gen. 20:17;Exod. 2:5). The third is shipkhah, which refers to a female slave whois of close kinship to her master (Gen. 29:24). The fourth isna’arah, which is translated “unmarried girl”(Esther 2:4 [NIV: “young woman”]) or “servant”(Esther 4:4 [NIV: “female attendant”]; Ruth 2:23). Thefifth is ’almah, which is translated “girl” (Exod.2:8), “virgin” (Isa. 7:14), or “maiden”(Prov. 30:19 [NIV: “young woman”]).

Inthe NT, several Greek words are sometimes translated as “maiden”in the KJV. Parthenos refers to a “virgin,” male orfemale (Matt. 1:23; Acts 21:9; Rev. 14:4). Pais generally means “ayoung girl,” “maiden,”or “child” (Luke 8:51, 54). Paidiskē refers to a“female slave,” “servant maid,” or “servantgirl” (Mark 14:66; Luke 12:45). The word korasion refers to a“girl” or “little girl” (Matt. 9:24–25).Nymphē refersto a “young wife” or “bride” (Luke 12:53;Rev. 21:2).

The KJV translation for a young girl, an unmarried woman orvirgin, or a female servant. At least five Hebrew words are used torefer to such women. Betulah refers to an unmarried virgin or a youngwoman who has had no sexual experience (Gen. 24:16; Job 31:1; Exod.22:16–17). A man who forcefully lay with such a woman wasexpected to marry her (Deut. 22:13–19). When David was old, avirgin was found to lie at his side to keep him warm (1Kings1:2). Israel as a nation is identified as a young virgin (Jer. 31:4).The second term is ’amah, translated “bondwoman,”“maidservant,” “maid,” “bondmaid,”“servant,” or “female servant” (Gen. 20:17;Exod. 2:5). The third is shipkhah, which refers to a female slave whois of close kinship to her master (Gen. 29:24). The fourth isna’arah, which is translated “unmarried girl”(Esther 2:4 [NIV: “young woman”]) or “servant”(Esther 4:4 [NIV: “female attendant”]; Ruth 2:23). Thefifth is ’almah, which is translated “girl” (Exod.2:8), “virgin” (Isa. 7:14), or “maiden”(Prov. 30:19 [NIV: “young woman”]).

Inthe NT, several Greek words are sometimes translated as “maiden”in the KJV. Parthenos refers to a “virgin,” male orfemale (Matt. 1:23; Acts 21:9; Rev. 14:4). Pais generally means “ayoung girl,” “maiden,”or “child” (Luke 8:51, 54). Paidiskē refers to a“female slave,” “servant maid,” or “servantgirl” (Mark 14:66; Luke 12:45). The word korasion refers to a“girl” or “little girl” (Matt. 9:24–25).Nymphē refersto a “young wife” or “bride” (Luke 12:53;Rev. 21:2).

(1)Thesister of Moses and Aaron, and the only known daughter of Amram andJochebed (Num. 26:59). After Jochebed laid the infant Moses in abasket and placed it in the Nile River, Miriam followed the basketuntil Pharaoh’s daughter discovered it, and she promptlyvolunteered her mother to assist in caring for the child (Exod.2:4–10). Miriam, referred to as a “prophet” (Exod.15:20), led the Israelite women in celebration and worship after thesuccessful crossing of the Red Sea as the Israelites fled Egypt(15:20–21). She is remembered as a central figure in Moses’leadership team during the exodus (Mic. 6:4).

Alongwith Aaron, she came to oppose the leadership of Moses, apparentlybecause of his interracial marriage to a Cush*te woman (Num. 12:1).The end result was that God caused her to become leprous, for whichshe had to be cast out of the camp for seven days. She was healedbecause of Moses’ interceding prayer. She died and was buriedin Kadesh (Num. 20:1).

(2)Adescendant of Ezrah in the line of Judah (1Chron. 4:17).

Moses played a leadership role in the founding of Israel as a“kingdom of priests and a holy nation” (Exod. 19:6).Indeed, the narrative of Exodus through Deuteronomy is the story ofGod using Moses to found the nation of Israel. It begins with anaccount of his birth (Exod. 2) and ends with an account of his death(Deut. 34). Moses’ influence and importance extend well beyondhis lifetime, as later Scripture demonstrates.

Abraham’sDescendants in Egypt

Thebook of Genesis prepares the way for the story of Moses and thefounding of Israel. After recounting the creation of the world andthe fall into sin, the book eventually describes God’s choiceof Abraham as the one whose descendants he will make “a greatnation” and bring a blessing to the world (Gen. 12:1–3).However, by the end of Genesis, Abraham’s descendants have goneto Egypt in order to survive a devastating famine. Although they arein a good relationship with the Egyptian government, the hope isexpressed that God will eventually return them to the land of promise(Gen. 50:24–26).

Manyyears pass between the close of the book of Genesis and the beginningof Exodus. The Israelite population has grown from family size (aboutseventy people) to nation size. Out of fear, the Egyptians had begunto oppress them. Indeed, the size of the Israelite population soworried them that Pharaoh instituted a decree calling for the deathof all male babies born to the Israelites.

Moses’Life before the Exodus

Moseswas born in a dangerous time, and according to Pharaoh’sdecree, he should not have survived long after his birth. He was bornto Amram and Jochebed (Exod. 6:20). Circumventing Pharaoh’sdecree, Jochebed placed the infant Moses in a reed basket and floatedhim down the river. This act seems desperate, but there are similarstories from the Near East (the account of the birth of Sargon, anAkkadian king), and perhaps it was a way of placing the endangeredchild in the hands of God. God guided the basket down the river andinto the presence of none other than Pharaoh’s daughter (Exod.2:5–6), who, at the urging of Moses’ sister, hiredJochebed to take care of the child. When the infant grew older,Pharaoh’s daughter gave him a Hebrew name, “Moses,”which sounds like the Hebrew verb mashah, meaning “to draw out”(Exod. 2:10). This amazing story of Moses’ survival at birthinforms later Israel that their human savior was really provided bytheir divine savior.

Modernmovie adaptations of this story dwell on Moses’ upbringing inPharaoh’s household, but the Bible itself is essentially silenton this period of his life (apart from a reference to Moses’Egyptian education in Acts 7:22; cf. Heb. 11:24). The next majorepisode concerns his defense of an Israelite worker who was beingbeaten by an Egyptian (Exod. 2:11–25). In the process ofrescuing the Israelite, Moses killed the Egyptian. Apparently, hisrelationship to the ruler’s household would not save him frompunishment, so when it became clear that he was known to be thekiller, he fled Egypt and ended up in Midian, where he became amember of the family of a Midianite priest-chief, Jethro, by marryinghis daughter Zipporah.

Theterritory of Midian is vaguely described in the Bible, perhapsbecause its people were nomadic sheepherders. They were often foundaround the Gulf of Aqaba and sometimes farther northeast of theJordan River. The question is whether the tent of Jethro and MountSinai were on the Sinai Peninsula or on the eastern side of Aqaba inwhat is today Saudi Arabia.

AlthoughMoses was not looking for a way back into Egypt, God had differentplans. One day, while Moses was tending his sheep, God appeared tohim in the form of a burning bush and commissioned him to go back toEgypt and lead his people to freedom. Moses expressed reluctance, andso God grudgingly enlisted his older brother, Aaron, to accompany himas his spokesperson.

TheExodus and Wilderness Wandering

UponMoses’ return to Egypt, Pharaoh stubbornly refused to allow theIsraelites to leave Egypt. God directed Moses to announce a series ofplagues that ultimately induced Pharaoh to allow the Israelites todepart. After they left, Pharaoh had a change of mind and corneredthem on the shores of the Red Sea (Sea of Reeds). It was at the RedSea that God demonstrated his great power by splitting the sea andallowing the Israelites to escape before closing it again in judgmenton the Egyptians. Moses signaled the presence of God by lifting hisrod high in the air (Exod. 14:16). This event was long remembered asthe defining moment when God released Israel from Egyptian slavery(Pss. 77; 114), and it even became the paradigm for future divinerescues (Isa. 40:3–5; Hos. 2:14–15).

Afterthe crossing of the Red Sea, Moses led Israel back to Mount Sinai,the location of his divine commissioning. At this time, Moses went upthe mountain as a prophetic mediator for the people (Deut. 18:16). Hereceived the Ten Commandments, the rest of the law, and instructionsto build the tabernacle (Exod. 19–24). All these were part of anew covenantal arrangement that today we refer to as the Mosaic orSinaitic covenant.

However,as Moses came down the mountain with the law, he saw that the people,who had grown tired of waiting, were worshiping a false god that theyhad created in the form of a golden calf (Exod. 32). With the aid ofthe Levites, who that day assured their role as Israel’spriestly helpers, he brought God’s judgment against theoffenders and also interceded in prayer with God to prevent the totaldestruction of Israel.

Thusbegan Israel’s long story of rebellion against God. God wasparticularly upset with the lack of confidence that the Israeliteshad shown when the spies from the twelve tribes gave their report(Num. 13). They did not believe that God could handle the fearsomewarriors who lived in the land, and so God doomed them to forty yearsof wandering in the wilderness, enough time for the first generationto die. Not even Moses escaped this fate, since he had shown angeragainst God and attributed a miracle to his own power and not to Godwhen he struck a rock in order to get water (Num. 20:1–13).

Thus,Moses was not permitted to enter the land of promise, though he hadled the Israelites to the very brink of entry on the plains of Moab.There he gave his last sermon, which we know as the book ofDeuteronomy. The purpose of his sermon was to tell the secondgeneration of Israelites who were going to enter the land that theymust obey God’s law or suffer the consequences. The form of thesermon was that of a covenant renewal, and so Israel on this occasionreaffirmed its loyalty to God.

Afterthis, Moses went up on Mount Nebo, from which he could see thepromised land, and died. Deuteronomy concludes with the followingstatements: “Since then, no prophet has risen in Israel likeMoses, whom the Lord knew face to face.... For noone has ever shown the mighty power or performed the awesome deedsthat Moses did in the sight of all Israel” (Deut. 34:10, 12).

Legacyand Dates

TheNT honors Moses as God’s servant but also makes the point thatJesus is one who far surpasses Moses as a mediator between God andpeople (Acts 3:17–26; Heb.3).

Thedate of Moses is a matter of controversy because the biblical textdoes not name the pharaohs of the story. Many date him to thethirteenth century BC and associate him with RamessesII, butothers take 1Kings 6:1 at face value and date him to the end ofthe fifteenth century BC, perhaps during the reign of ThutmoseIII.

The Nile River is the lifeblood of Egypt and was pivotal forthe life and culture of the ancient Egyptians. Annual flooding beganduring late June or August, inundating the land with water, bringingin nutrient-rich silts, and washing away salts from the soil. Theannual flooding made the Nile Valley a fertile region, especiallysuited for growing cereal grains. The Nile floods also replenishedthe marshes, an important habitat for fish and birds and anotherimportant resource to the ancient Egyptians. Because of the meagerannual rainfall in the region, agriculture was virtually impossibleoutside the Nile floodplains. Therefore, Egyptian settlement patternstended to cling close to the river. However, fluctuations in theNile’s flood levels could bring devastation. An unusually lowflood would mean poor crop yields for the year, and an unusually highflood could destroy homes, livestock, and property. Such variationsin flood levels are alluded to as the cause for the seven years offamine foreboded in the pharaoh’s dream in Gen. 41:1–4,17–21.

TheNile is fed by three main tributaries. The Blue Nile and the Atbaraoriginate in Ethiopia, while the White Nile carries its waters fromLake Victoria in northern Tanzania. All three rivers converge beforethe fifth of six cataracts, or rapids, along the Nile. Thesecataracts, numbered from north to south, acted as a natural barrieragainst hostile incursions from the south.

TheNile flows from south to north, but a prevailing wind along the Nileflows from north to south. These two factors mean that transportationnorth of the cataracts, where the Nile is calm for about 530 miles,was possible in both directions. Travelers could float without asail, using the current to bring them northward (downstream), or ridethe prevailing winds by use of the sail in order to travel southward(upstream). In Egyptian hieroglyphics, northward travel wasillustrated via a symbol of a boat with a folded sail and a steeringoar, while southward travel was shown as a boat with its sailunfurled.

Tothe ancient Egyptians, the Nile Valley was thought of as two halves.“Upper Egypt” referred to the part of the Nile south ofthe Nile Delta, while “Lower Egypt” referred to the NileDelta itself. The ancient Egyptians oriented their world with regardto the Nile, not, as moderns do, by compass directions.

TheNile is mentioned frequently within the Bible, especially concerningJoseph and Moses, but also within the prophecies of Isaiah, Jeremiah,Ezekiel, Amos, and Zechariah. Apart from the aforementioned referencein Gen. 41, the Nile is also referenced as the river into whichPharaoh ordered the Israelite infant boys be thrown, which led toMoses’ fortuitous float into the arms of Pharaoh’sdaughter (Exod. 1:22; 2:3, 5–6, 10; Acts 7:22). Several plaguesare also associated with the Nile (Exod. 4:9; 7:15–24; 8:3–11,20; 17:5; Ps. 78:44–45). In 2Kings 19:24 Sennacheribbrags that he dried up the streams of Egypt. Prophetic references tothe Nile occur in Isa. 7:18; 19:5–8; 23:3, 10; Jer. 46:7–8;Ezek. 29:3–10; Amos 7:8; 9:5; Zech. 10:11.

In the Bible, writing was carved into stone (Exod. 24:12;Josh. 8:32) or stone covered with plaster (Deut. 27:1–10),metal (Exod. 28:36), or wood (Num. 17:2–3; Ezek. 37:16). Claytablets or wooden tablets covered with wax were also used (Isa. 8:1;30:8; Hab. 2:2; Luke 1:63). However, while clay tablets were commonin Mesopotamia and among the Hittites in Anatolia, they were usedmore rarely in Israel or Egypt because of the accessibility ofpapyrus and parchment.

Writingimplements are mentioned occasionally in the Bible. A stylus—asharpened instrument fashioned from materials such as reed, bone, ormetal (e.g., Job 19:24; Jer. 17:1)—was used to carve lettersinto clay or wax. A sharpened reed could also be dipped in ink tofunction as a pen for writing on papyrus or parchment (Ps. 45:1; Isa.8:1; Matt. 5:18; Luke 16:17; 2John 13). A scribe would oftenneed additional implements to prepare the writing surface, to removeor rub out an error, to mix the ink, or to sharpen the stylus (cf.“writing kit” in Ezek. 9:2–3, 11; “scribe’sknife” in Jer. 36:23).

DuringOld and New Testament times, papyrus was one of the two most commontypes of writing material. The tall, marshy papyrus reed (Cyperuspapyrus) grew abundantly in Lower Egypt in ancient times (Job 8:11)and was used for baskets (Exod. 2:3), mats, ropes, sandals, and evenboats (Isa. 18:2). As early as 3000 BC, however, the papyrus reed wasmost known for making a kind of paper referred to simply as“papyrus.” Literary and archaeological evidencedemonstrates that papyrus was used extensively across the Near Eastwell into the first Christian millennium.

Papyrusstalks are typically the diameter of a human palm and roughlytriangular in shape. Sections were cut about a foot long. The innerfibrous pith was cut lengthwise into thin strips that were placedside by side on a board. A second layer of strips was placed at rightangles. The resulting “sheet” was pounded together. Plinythe Elder (Nat. 13.11–13) claimed that the Nile water glued thestrips together, but actually the crushed pulp did so. The driedsheets were trimmed to a standard size, varying by “factory,”typically ten inches high by eight inches wide.

Sheets(with the horizontal fibers on top) were glued side by side with thesheet on the left slightly lapping over the right, so that a scribe’spen slid “downhill” when moving onto the next sheet. Itwas not uncommon for a column of text to be on a joint (unlikeleather sheets, whose sewn joint would not hold text). The joinedsheets formed a roll (scroll) of standard length (about twelve feet)called a chartēs(2John 12), the typical unit of sale. It is estimated that inNT times a chartēs cost four denars (=approximately U.S.$450). Secretaries cut sheets off a chartēs or glued onadditional length as the task required,but the typical ancient letter, such as 3John, was about onesheet in length.

Theother most common type of writing material was leather parchment.Made chiefly from the skins of sheep or goats, parchment would beprepared by soaking, dehairing, scraping, and washing the hide. Theskin would be stretched on a frame and smoothed with a pumice stone.Vellum is a finer grade of parchment and is made from calfskin orkidskin. Sections of parchment also were sewn together to make aroll. Paul asked Timothy to bring him “the parchments”(2Tim. 4:13).

Papyrushad the advantage of being lightweight and durable, and perhaps lessexpensive, so it was often preferred over clay, wooden, metal, orstone tablets, or even parchment (at least until the third centuryAD). However, papyrus had two major disadvantages: it deterioratedrapidly in water and was almost exclusively from Egypt. Since ink waswater-soluble, all documents were routinely protected from moisture,so trade issues with Egypt may be to blame for major shifts toparchment. Unfortunately, only ancient papyri left in dry locationsin dry climates have survived, explaining why the bulk of knownpapyri are from the Egyptian desert.

Papermade of wood pulp or similar fibers was invented in China and was notadopted in the West until the eighth century or later.

From an Egyp-tian term meaning “great house,”“Pharaoh” refers to Egypt’s supreme leader. ThePentateuch refers to the pharaohs by title only. (The omission of thepersonal name of the pharaoh may reflect the Egyptian practice of notnaming their enemies.) Abraham lied to the pharaoh of his day abouthis marital status out of fear for his life (Gen. 12:10–20).Joseph helped the pharaoh survive and thrive during a famine; inreturn, the pharaoh exalted Joseph and provided for his family (Gen.40–47). A pharaoh oppressed the Israelites in Egypt (Exod. 1);from the next pharaoh, Moses and Aaron requested and ultimately wonpermission to free the Israelites from their bondage (Exod. 1–15).

Beyondthe Pentateuch, six other pharaohs are mentioned, some by name.(1)Solomonmarried the daughter of a pharaoh who led him to betray God (1Kings3:1). (2)Jeroboamrebelled against Solomon and received sanctuary from Pharaoh Shishak,who later raided Judah under Rehoboam (1Kings 11:18, 40).(3)Hoshea,the last king of the northern kingdom, sought help from Pharaoh So(Osorkon), bringing on him the wrath of King Shalmaneser of Assyria(2Kings 17:4). (4)TheAssyrian king Sennacherib sent an envoy to Jerusalem who chidedHezekiah for depending on an unnamed and unreliable pharaoh (2Kings18:21; Isa. 36:6). (5)PharaohNecho meddled in the affairs of Judah when he killed Josiah anddeposed his son Jehoahaz, replacing him with Jehoiakim (2Kings23:29–35). (6)PharaohHophra was the Egyptian leader upon whom Zedekiah vainly dependedagainst the Babylonians (Jer. 44:30).

Payment for the hire of one’s labor, often disburseddaily. The Bible refers to wages in connection with variousoccupations, including agricultural worker (Gen. 29:15; 30:27–29;Zech. 11:12; Matt. 20:1–16; John 4:36), artisan (1Kings5:6; Isa. 46:6), soldier (2Chron. 25:6; Ezek. 29:18–19;1Cor. 9:7), prostitute (Hos. 9:1; Mic. 1:7), priest (Judg.18:4; Num. 18:31), nurse (Exod. 2:9), and even the beast of burden(Exod. 22:15; Zech. 8:10; 1Tim. 5:18). Prophets were paid fortheir work (Amos 7:12), though a late OT and Second Temple periodtradition regarded the sin of Balaam as prophecy for hire (Deut.23:4; Neh. 6:12–13; 13:2; 2Pet. 2:15; Jude 11). In theNT, the concept of wage labor is extended to the church leader andthe apostle (Luke 10:7; 1Cor. 3:8; 1Tim. 5:18).

Behindmany references in the NT to wages lies theLatin term denarius (Gk. dēnarion) a small silver coinequivalent to a day’s wages (as in Matt. 20:2). Thus, in Mark6:37 “more than half a year’s wages” (NIV)translates what in Greek is “two hundred denarii” (NRSV)(see also Mark 14:5), and the commodityprices in Rev. 6:6 show massive inflation relative to the day’swage or denarius. In addition to the payment of wages with money, theBible attests the payment of wages in kind, including wives (Gen.29:17), livestock (Gen. 30:32), food (Num. 18:31; 1Sam. 2:5),and, in the case of soldiers, plunder (Ezek. 29:19).

Severaltexts regard the fair payment of wages as a basic element of socialjustice and, conversely, the withholding of wages as an evil.Deuteronomy 24:15 commands the employer to pay workers wages “eachday before sunset, because they are poor and are counting on it”(cf. Lev. 19:13; Job 7:2). Likewise, Mal. 3:5 denounces those whodefraud workers of wages (cf. Gen. 31:2), a stance continued in theNT (Rom. 4:4; James 5:4).

Thereward of righteousness and the punishment of wickedness aredescribed as a wage, as in Rom. 6:23: “The wages of sin isdeath.” Proverbs 10:16 says, “The wages of the righteousis life, but the earnings of the wicked are sin and death” (cf.Prov. 11:18; Isa. 65:7; 2Pet. 2:13).

The word “apocalypse” means “revelation.”It is used in Rev. 1:1 to identify what follows as information thatwould otherwise be known only in heaven. “Apocalyptic”therefore refers to uncovering something that is hidden—revealingsecrets. It focuses on the gracious acts of God whereby he informshis servants of his plans and purposes about what is happening andwill happen on earth. Scholars have identified those texts thatresemble the form of the book of Revelation as “apocalypticl*terature,” including the visions of Isaiah, Ezekiel, Daniel,and Zechariah.

Apocalyptictexts also appear outside of the Bible, although many of them areinspired by biblical accounts. The record of Enoch’s journeyinto the heavens (Gen. 5:24) stimulated the imagination of manyduring the Second Temple period, resulting in the production of alarge number of apocalyptic works purporting to record what Enochlearned while in the heavens. These then formed the basis for adistinctive, and ultimately misguided, interpretation of contemporaryJewish experience (see, e.g., 1 Enoch, Jubilees). The popularityof apocalyptic literature grew significantly after the appearance ofJohn’s Revelation, particularly in later gnostic literature andthe works of various forms of Jewish mysticism.

Thegenre of apocalyptic literature.Forthere to be apocalyptic literature, some things must be accepted astrue: God exists and is in sovereign control over what happens onearth; God has a plan, and humankind cannot know anything of thatplan unless it be revealed. This literature claims to be the resultof a gracious act of God. It may be delivered through a vision of Godhimself. Alternately, it might involve seeing things in the heavenseither as a vision or as a guided tour.

God’srevelation occurred in many ways on many occasions (Heb. 1:1–2).The entire Bible is, in this sense, an apocalypse—a revelation.Some forms of this revelation, however, are easier to understand thanothers.

Asa literary form, apocalyptic literature might best be described asverbal cartoons. The images that are so graphically portrayed wouldhave had, for the original readers, something of the instant impactthat a political cartoon might have on us today. In order tounderstand such images, one must be familiar with the symbols beingused. The cartoons and posters from the two World Wars—in whichanimals such as the lion of England, the Russian bear, the Uncle Samcharacter, and bestial monsters depicted the enemy at the time—area sufficient example to shed light on how the original readers wouldhave read these biblical works. To understand individual picturessuch as the beast of Rev. 13 or the four-headed leopard of Dan. 7,one had to know something of the specific historical background.

Earlierimages could be adapted and reapplied. So, for example, Joseph’svision of his family as the sun, moon, and stars (Gen. 37:9) is usedto identify the woman of Rev. 12:1 as the personification of thenation of Israel—the line from which the Savior would come.

God’srevelation to his people.Apocalyptic literature functions in much the same way that Jesus usedhis parables (Matt. 13:11). It is often used in situations whereGod’s people appear to be under physical threat. The symbolsand the patterns used enable those on the inside to follow what ishappening while leaving those on the outside none the wiser. Theability of God’s people to understand the revelation identifiesand discriminates them from God’s enemies, who appear confused.

Apocalypticl*terature is not always about the future, let alone about the end ofthe world. Mostly it is designed to enable the believer to see pastthe confusions and fears of present experience, and to be remindedthat God is in control and that everything is going according to hisplans and purposes. God’s plans may include calling upon hispeople to face a range of challenges or to suffer persecution. Thesevisions enable believers to see meaning and purpose in theseexperiences and to keep their focus faithfully on God.

Thebook of Job offers some insight into the nature of apocalypticl*terature, even though it is not usually regarded as such. Thenarrator (without explaining how he knows these things) begins byinforming the reader of the events that transpired in God’sheavenly court. This enables the reader (unlike Job or his friends)to put Job’s experience in proper context. Eliphaz’schallenge then has powerful irony when he asks Job, “Do youlisten in on God’s council? Do you have a monopoly on wisdom?”(15:8). The resolution of their deliberations is made possible onlywhen God comes to earth in visible form and reveals his judgment onthe matter. This is designed to evoke not a blind faith but aninformed faithfulness that allows for the reality of God’ssuperior wisdom and his right to determine all things for his glory.

Whenthe king had a dream in Gen. 41:15–16 (cf. Dan. 2:27–28),the point is made that no one can discover the mind of God. However,God has graciously revealed his plans to his servants, who can thenexplain them to a world that lives in darkness and ignorance of thesethings.

Theone who received such revelations often needs an interpreting angel(Dan. 7:16; Zech. 1:9; cf. Gen. 28:10–17; Exod. 3:1–6).The seer, like the reader, is initially confused. The interpretingangel answers the seer’s questions, and the reader can in turnunderstand what is happening.

Understandingapocalyptic literature.Given the historical distance between the modern reader and theoriginal authors of the biblical apocalyptic texts, we might betempted to think that they cannot be understood with any certainty.They are nonetheless God’s revelation to his people and weregiven with the intention that they be understood. Comprehending anapocalyptic vision requires us to search the Scriptures to see howthese symbols and patterns were interpreted, and then to see how theyare again used to give us some insight into God’s power, grace,and calling upon his people in each age.

Forexample, the beasts representing four successive kingdoms (Dan.7:1–7, 15–23) later are redrawn into a composite symbolof any contemporary human power operating under Satan’s rule(Rev. 13:1–3). The similarities between Babylon and Romeidentified both as agents of Satan’s regime; the connectionthen became an apocalyptic accusation (1 Pet. 5:13) offeringassurance to God’s people. Herod’s attempt to kill Jesus(Matt. 2:16) follows the pattern of Pharaoh’s attempt on Israel(Exod. 1–2), so the picture of Satan as the red dragonattacking the woman giving birth identifies the one behind Herod’sactions while pointing to the God who brought his people out of Egyptas the one who will save those who put their trust in Jesus.

The biblical corpus known as the Pentateuch consists of thefirst five books of the OT: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, andDeuteronomy. The word “Pentateuch” comes from two Greekwords (penta [“five”] and teuchos [“scroll case,book”]) and is a designation attested in the early churchfathers. The collection is also commonly known as the “FiveBooks of Moses,” “the Law of Moses,” or simply the“Law,” reflecting the traditional Jewish name “Torah,”meaning “law” or “instruction.” The Torah isthe first of three major sections that comprise the Hebrew Bible(Torah, Nebiim, Ketubim [Law, Prophets, Writings]); thus for bothJewish and Christian traditions it represents the introduction to theBible as a whole as well as its interpretive foundation.

TheEnglish names for the books of the Pentateuch came from the LatinVulgate, based on the Greek Septuagint. These appellations are mainlydescriptive of their content. Genesis derives from “generations”or “origin,” Exodus means “going out,”Leviticus represents priestly (Levitical) service, Numbers refers tothe censuses taken in the book, and Deuteronomy indicates “secondlaw” because of Moses’ rehearsal of God’s commands(see Deut. 17:18). The Hebrew designations derive from opening wordsin each book. Beresh*t (Genesis) means “in the beginning”;Shemot (Exodus), “[these are] the names”; Wayyiqra’(Leviticus), “and he called”; Bemidbar (Numbers), “inthe desert”; and Debarim (Deuteronomy), “[these are] thewords.”

Referringto the Pentateuch as “Torah” or the “Law”reflects the climactic reception of God’s commands at MountSinai, which were to govern Israel’s life and worship in thepromised land, including their journey to get there. However, callingthe Pentateuch the “Law” can be a bit misleading becausethere are relatively few passages that simply list a set of commands,and all law passages are set within a broad narrative. The Pentateuchis a grand story that begins on a universal scale with the creationof the cosmos and ends on the plains of Moab as the readeranticipates the fulfillment of God’s plan to redeem a fallenworld through his chosen people. The books offer distinct qualitiesand content, but they are also inherently dependent upon one another,as the narrative remains unbroken through the five volumes. Genesisends with Jacob’s family in Egypt, and, though many years havepassed, this is where Exodus begins. Leviticus outlines cultic lifeat the tabernacle (constructed at the end of Exodus) and even beginswithout a clear subject (“And he called...”),which requires the reader to supply “the Lord” from thelast verse of Exodus. Numbers begins with an account of Israel’sfighting men as the nation prepares to leave Sinai, and Deuteronomyis Moses’ farewell address to the nation on the cusp of thepromised land.

Authorshipand Composition

Althoughthe Pentateuch is technically an anonymous work, Jewish and Christiantradition attributes its authorship to Moses, the main figure of thestory from Exodus to Deuteronomy. The arguments for attributing theauthorship of the Pentateuch to Moses come from internal evidencewithin both Testaments. That Moses is responsible for at leastportions of the Pentateuch is suggested by references to his explicitliterary activity reflected within the narrative itself (Exod. 17:14;24:4; 34:28; Num. 33:2; Deut. 31:9, 22, 24), if not implied invarious literary formulas such as “the Lord said to Moses”(e.g., Exod. 39:1, 7, 21; Lev. 4:1; 11:1; 13:1; Num. 1:1; 2:1).Mosaic authorship receives support from the historical books, whichuse terms such as “the Book of the Law of Moses” invarious forms and references in the preexilic history (Josh. 8:30–35;23:6; 2Kings 14:6) as well as the postexilic history (e.g.,2Chron. 25:4; Ezra 6:18; Neh. 13:1). The same titles are usedby NT authors (e.g., Mark 12:26; Luke 24:44; John 1:45), evenreferring to the Pentateuch simply by the name “Moses” atvarious points (e.g., Luke 16:29; 24:27; 2Cor. 3:15).

Evenwith these examples, nowhere does the text explicitly state thatMoses is responsible for the entire compilation of the Pentateuch orthat he penned it with his own hand. Rather, a number of factorspoint to a later hand at work: Moses’ death and burial arereferenced (Deut. 34), the conquest of Canaan is referred to as past(Deut. 2:12), and there is evidence that the names of people andplaces were updated and explained for later generations (e.g., “Dan”in Gen. 14:14; cf. Josh. 19:47; Judg. 18:28b–29). Based onthese factors, it is reasonable to believe that the Pentateuchunderwent editorial alteration as it was preserved within Jewish lifeand took its final shape after Moses’ lifetime.

Overthe last century, the Documentary Hypothesis has dominated academicdiscussion of the Pentateuch’s composition. This theory wascrystallized by Julius Wellhausen in his Prolegomena to the Historyof Israel in the late nineteenth century and posits that thePentateuch originated from a variety of ancient sources derived fromdistinct authors and time periods that have been transmitted andjoined through a long and complex process. Traditionally thesedocuments are identified as J, E, D, and P. The J source is adocument authored by the “Yahwist” (German, Jahwist) inJudah around 840 BC and is so called because the name “Yahweh”is used frequently in its text. The E source stands for “Elohist”because of its preference for the divine title “Elohim”and was composed in Israel around 700 BC. The D source stands for“Deuteronomy” because it reflects material found in thatbook; it was composed sometime around Josiah’s reform in 621BC. The P document reflects material that priests would be concernedwith in the postexilic time period, approximately 500 BC. This theoryand its related forms stem from the scholarly concern over variousliterary characteristics such as the use of divine names; doubletsand duplications in the text; observable patterns of style,terminology, and themes; and alleged discrepancies in facts,descriptions, and geographic or historical perspective.

Variousdocumentary theories of composition have flourished over the lastcentury of pentateuchal scholarship and still have many adherents.However, lack of scholarly agreement about the dating and characterof the sources and the rise of other literary approaches to the texthave many conservative and liberal scholars calling into question theaccuracy and even interpretive benefit of the source theories.Moreover, if the literary observations used to create sourcedistinctions can be explained in other ways, then the DocumentaryHypothesis is significantly undermined.

Inits canonical form, the pentateuchal narrative combines artisticprose, poetry, and law to tell a dramatic history spanning thousandsof years. One could divide the story into six major sections:primeval history (Gen. 1–11), the patriarchs (Gen. 12–50),liberation from Egypt (Exod. 1–18), Sinai (Exod. 19:1–Num.10:10), wilderness journey (Num. 10:11–36:13), and Moses’farewell (Deuteronomy).

PrimevalHistory (Gen. 1–11)

Itis possible to divide Genesis into two parts based upon subjectmatter: the origin of creation and humankind’s call, fall, andpunishment (chaps 1–11), and the origin of a family that wouldbecome God’s conduit of salvation and blessing for the world(chaps. 12–50).

Theprimeval history comprises essentially the first eleven chapters ofGenesis, ending with the genealogy of Abraham in 11:26. Strictlyspeaking, 11:27 begins the patriarchal section with the sixthinstance of the toledot formula found in Genesis, referencingAbraham’s father, Terah. The Hebrew phrase ’elleh toledot(“these are the generations of”) occurs in eleven placesin Genesis and reflects a deliberate structural marker that one mayuse to divide the book into distinct episodes (2:4; 5:1; 6:9; 10:1;11:10; 11:27; 25:12; 25:19; 36:1; 36:9; 37:2).

Genesisas we know it exhibits two distinct creation accounts in its firsttwo chapters. Although critical scholars contend that the differingaccounts reflect contradictory stories and different authors, it isjust as convenient to recognize that the two stories vary in styleand some content because they attempt to accomplish different aims.The first account, 1:1–2:3, is an artistic, poetic,symmetrical, and “heavenly” view of creation by atranscendent God, who spoke creation into being. In the secondaccount, 2:4–25, God is immanently involved with creation as heis present in a garden, breathes life into Adam’s nostrils,dialogues and problem-solves, fashions Eve from Adam’s side,and bestows warnings and commands. Both perspectives are foundationalfor providing an accurate view of God’s interaction withcreation in the rest of Scripture.

Asone progresses through chapters 1–11, the story quickly changesfrom what God has established as “very good” to discord,sin, and shame. Chapter 3 reflects the “fall” of humanityas Adam and Eve sin in eating from the forbidden tree in directdisobedience to God. The serpent shrewdly deceives the first couple,and thus all three incur God’s curses, which extend tounlimited generations. Sin that breaks the vertical relationshipbetween God and humanity intrinsically leads to horizontal strifebetween humans. Sin and disunity on the earth only intensify as onemoves from the murder story of Cain and Abel in chapter 4 to theflood in chapters 5–9. Violence, evil, and disorder have sopervaded the earth that God sends a deluge to wipe out all livingthings, save one righteous man and his family, along with an ark fullof animals. God makes the first covenant recorded in the biblicalnarrative with Noah (6:18), promising to save him from the flood ashe commands Noah to build an ark and gather food for survival. Noahfulfills all that God has commanded (6:22; 7:5), and God remembershis promise (8:1). This is the prototypical salvation story for therest of Scripture.

Chapter9 reflects a new start for humanity and all living things as thecreation mandate to “be fruitful and increase in number; fillthe earth and subdue it,” first introduced in 1:28, is restatedalong with the reminder that humankind is made in God’s image(1:27). Bearing the image involves new responsibilities andstipulations in the postdiluvian era (9:2–6). There will beenmity between humans and animals, animals are now appropriate food,and yet lifeblood will be specially revered. God still requiresaccountability for just and discriminate shedding of blood andorderly relationships, as he has proved in the deluge, but now herelinquishes this responsibility to humankind. In return, Godpromises never to destroy all flesh again, and he will set therainbow in the sky as a personal reminder. Like the covenant withNoah in 6:18, the postdiluvian covenant involves humankind fulfillingcommands (9:1–7) and God remembering his covenant (9:8–17),specially termed “everlasting” (9:16).

Theprimeval commentary on humankind’s unabating sinful condition(e.g., 6:5; 8:21) proves true as Noah becomes drunk and naked and hisson Ham (father of Canaan) shames him by failing to conceal hisfather’s negligence. Instead of multiplying, filling, andsubduing the earth as God has intended, humankind collaborates tomake a name for itself by building a sort of stairway to heavenwithin a special city (11:4). God foils such haughty plans byscattering the people across the earth and confusing their language.Expressed in an orderly chiastic structure, the story of the tower ofBabel demonstrates that God condescends (11:5) to set things straightwith humanity.

Patriarchs(Gen. 12–50)

Althoughthe primeval history is foundational for understanding the rest ofthe Bible, more space in Genesis is devoted to the patriarchalfigures Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph. In general, the Abrahamicnarrative spans chapters 12–25, the story of Isaac serves as atransition to the Jacob cycle of chapters 25–37, and the Josephnarrative finishes the book of Genesis in chapters 37–50.

Thetransition from the primeval history to the patriarchs (11:27–32)reveals how Abraham, the father of Israel, moves from the east andsettles in Harran as the family ventures to settle in Canaan. InHarran, Abraham receives the call of God’s redemptive plan,which reverberates through Scripture. God will bless him with land,make him a great nation, grant him special favor, and use him as aconduit of blessings to the world (12:1–3). In 11:30 is theindication that the barrenness of Abraham’s wife (Sarah)relates to the essence of God’s magnificent promises. How onebecomes great in name and number, secures enemy territory, and is tobless all peoples without a descendant becomes the compellingquestion of the Abrahamic narrative. The interchange betweenAbraham’s faith in God and his attempts to contrive covenantfulfillment colors the entire narrative leading up to chapter 22. Itis there that Abraham’s faith is ultimately put to the test asGod asks him to sacrifice the promised son, Isaac. Abraham passesGod’s faith test, and a ram is provided to take Isaac’splace. This everlasting covenant that was previously sealed by thesign of circumcision is climactically procured for future generationsthrough Abraham’s exemplary obedience (22:16–18; cf.15:1–21; 17:1–27).

Thepatriarchal stories that follow show that the Abrahamic promises arerenewed with subsequent generations (see 26:3–4; 28:13–14)and survive various threats to fulfillment. The story of Isaac servesmainly as a bridge to the Jacob cycle, as he exists primarily as apassive character in relation to Abraham and Jacob.

Deception,struggle, rivalry, and favoritism characterize the Jacob narrative,as first exemplified in the jostling of twin boys in Rebekah’swomb (25:22). Jacob supplants his twin brother, Esau, for thefirstborn’s blessing and birthright. He flees to Paddan Aram(northern Mesopotamia), marries two sisters, takes their maidservantsas concubines, and has eleven children, followed by a falling-outwith his father-in-law. Jacob’s struggle for God’sblessing that began with Esau comes to a head in his wrestlingencounter with God at Peniel. Ultimately, Jacob emerges victoriousand receives God’s blessing and a name change, “Israel”(“one who struggles with God”). Throughout the Jacobstory, God demonstrates his faithfulness to the Abrahamic covenantand reiterates the promises to Jacob, most notably at Bethel (chaps.28; 35). The interpersonal strife of Jacob’s life is thusenveloped within a message of reconciliation not just with Esau(chap. 33) but ultimately with God. The reader learns from theepisodes in Jacob’s life that although God works through thelives of weak and failing people, his promises for Israel remainsecure.

AlthoughJacob and his family are already living in Canaan, God intends forthem to move to Egypt and grow into a powerful nation beforefulfilling their conquest of the promised land (see 15:13–16).The story of Joseph explains how the family ends up in Egypt at theclose of Genesis. Joseph is specially loved by his father, whichelicits significant jealousy from his brothers, who sell him off tosome nomads and fabricate the alibi that he has been killed by a wildbeast. Joseph winds up in Pharaoh’s household and eventuallybecomes his top official. When famine strikes Canaan years later,Joseph’s brothers go to Egypt to purchase food from the royalcourt, and Joseph reveals his identity to them in an emotionalreunion. Jacob’s entire family moves to Egypt to live for atime in prosperity under Joseph’s care. The Joseph storyillustrates the mysterious relationship of human decision and divinesovereignty (50:20).

Liberationfrom Egypt (Exod. 1–18)

Genesisshows how Abraham develops into a large family. Exodus shows how thisfamily becomes a nation—enslaved, freed, and then taught theways of God. Although it appears that Exodus continues a rivetingstory of God’s chosen people, it is actually the identity andpower of God that take center stage.

Manyyears have passed since Joseph’s family arrived in Egypt. TheHebrews’ good standing in Egypt has also diminished as theirmultiplication and fruitfulness during the intervening period—justas God had promised Abraham (Gen. 17:4–8)—became anational threat to the Egyptians. Abraham’s family will spendtime in Egyptian slavery before being liberated with many possessionsin hand (cf. Gen. 15:13–14).

Inthe book of Exodus the drama of suffering and salvation serves as thevehicle for God’s self-disclosure to a single man, Moses. Mosesis an Israelite of destiny even from birth, as he providentiallyavoids infant death and rises to power and influence in Pharaoh’shousehold. Moses never loses his passion for his own people, and hekills an Egyptian who was beating a fellow Hebrew. Moses flees toobscurity in the desert, where he meets God and his call to lead hispeople out of Egypt and to the promised land (3:7–8; 6:8). Likethe days of Noah’s salvation, God has remembered his covenantwith the patriarchs and responded to the groans of his people inEgypt (2:24; 6:4–5; cf. Gen. 8:1). God reveals himself, and hispersonal name “Yahweh” (“I am”), to Moses inthe great theophany of the burning bush at Mount Horeb (Sinai), thesame place where later he will receive God’s law. Moses doubtshis own ability to carry out the task of confronting Pharaoh andleading the exodus, but God foretells that many amazing signs andwonders not only will make the escape possible but also willultimately reveal the mighty nature of God to the Hebrews, Egypt, andpresumably the world (6:7; 7:5).

Thispromise of creating a nation of his people through deliverance issuccinctly conveyed in the classic covenant formula that findssignificance in the rest of the OT: “I will take you as my ownpeople, and I will be your God” (6:7). Wielding great powerover nature and at times even human decision, God “hardens”Pharaoh’s heart and sends ten plagues to demonstrate his favorfor his own people and wrath against their enemy nation. The tenthplague on the firstborn of all in Egypt provides the context for thePassover as God spares the firstborn of Israel in response to theplacement of sacrificial blood on the doorposts of their homes.Pharaoh persists in the attempt to overtake the Israelites in thedesert, where the power of God climaxes in parting the Red Sea (orSea of Reeds). The Israelites successfully pass through, buttheEgyptian army drowns in pursuit. This is the great salvationevent of the OT.

Thesong of praise for God’s deliverance (15:1–21) quicklyturns to cries of groaning in the seventy days following the exodusas the people of the nation, grumbling about their circ*mstances inthe desert, quickly demonstrate their fleeting trust in the one whohas saved them (Exod. 15:22–18:27). When a shortage of waterand food confronts the people, their faith in God’s care provesshallow, and they turn on Moses. Even though the special marks ofGod’s protection have been evident in the wilderness throughthe pillars of cloud and fire, the angel of God, the provision ofmanna and quail, water from the rock, and the leadership of Moses,the nation continually fails God’s tests of trust and obedience(16:4; cf. 17:2; 20:20). Yet God continues to endure with his peoplethrough the leadership of Moses.

Sinai(Exod. 19:1–Num. 10:10)

Mostof the pentateuchal narrative takes place at Mount Sinai. It is therethat Israel receives national legislation and prescriptions for thetabernacle, the priesthood, feasts and festivals, and othercovenantal demands for living as God’s chosen people. Theeleven-month stay at Sinai takes the biblical reader through thecenter of the Pentateuch, covering approximately the last half ofExodus, all of Leviticus, and the first third of Numbers, before thenation leaves this sacred site and sojourns in the wilderness.Several key sections of the Pentateuch fall withinthe Sinaistory: the Decalogue (Exod. 20:1–17), the Book of the Covenant(Exod. 20:22–23:33), the tabernacle prescriptions (Exod.25–31), the tabernacle construction (Exod. 35–40), themanual on ritual worship (Lev. 1–7), and the Holiness Code(Lev. 17–27).

Theevents and instruction at Sinai are central to the Israelitereligious experience and reflect the third eternal covenant that Godestablishes in the Pentateuch—this time with Israel, wherebythe Sabbath is the sign (Exod. 31:16; cf. Noahic/rainbow covenant[Gen. 9:16] and the Abrahamic/circumcision covenant [Gen. 17:7, 13,19]). The offices of prophet and priest develop into clear view inthis portion of the Pentateuch. Moses exemplifies the dual propheticfunction of representing the people when speaking with God and, inturn, God when speaking to the people. The priesthood is bestowedupon Aaron and his descendants in Exodus and inaugurated within oneof the few narrative sections of Leviticus (Lev. 8–10). Thegiving of the law, the ark, the tabernacle, the priesthood, and theSabbath are all a part of God’s making himself “known”to Israel and the world, which is a constant theme in Exodus (see,e.g., 25:22; 29:43, 46; 31:13).

TheIsraelites’ stay at Sinai opens with one of the greatesttheophanies of the Bible: God speaks aloud to the people (Exod.19–20) and then is envisioned as a consuming fire (Exod. 24).After communicating the Ten Commandments (“ten words”)directly to the people (Exod. 34:28; Deut. 4:13; 10:4), Mosesmediates the rest of the detailed obligations that will govern thefuture life of the nation. The covenant is ratified in ceremonialfashion (Exod. 24), and the Israelites vow to fulfill all that hasbeen spoken. God expects Israel to be a holy nation (Exod. 19:6) withwhom he may dwell, but Moses descends Sinai only to find that theIsraelites have already violated the essence of the Decalogue byfashioning a golden calf to worship as that which delivered them fromEgypt (Exod. 32). This places Israel’s future and calling injeopardy, but Moses intercedes for his people, and God graciouslypromises to preserve the nation and abide with it in his mercy, evenwhile punishing the guilty. This becomes prototypical of God’srelationship with his people in the future (Exod. 34:6–7).

Exodusends with the consecration of the tabernacle and the descent of God’spresence there. With the tent of worship in order, the priesthood andits rituals can be officially established. Leviticus reflects divineinstructions for how a sinful people may live safely in closeproximity to God. Holy living involves dealing with sin andminimizing the need for atonement, purification, and restitution. Thesacrificial and worship system established in Leviticus is based on aworldview of order, perfection, and purity, which should characterizea people who are commanded, “Be holy because I, the Lord yourGod, am holy’ (Lev. 19:2; cf. 11:44–45; 20:26). Withthese rules in place, the Israelites can make final preparations todepart Sinai and move forward on their journey. Numbers 1–10spans a nineteen-day period of such activities as the Israelitesbegin to focus on dispossessing their enemies. These chapters reflecta census of fighting men, the priority of purity, the dedication ofthe tabernacle, and the observance of the Passover before commencingthe quest to Canaan.

WildernessJourney (Num. 10:11–36:13)

Therest of the book of Numbers covers the remainder of a forty-yearstretch of great peaks and valleys in the faith and future of thenation. Chapters 11–25 recount the various events that show theexodus generation’s lack of trust in God. Chapters 26–36reveal a more positive section whereby a new generation prepares forthe conquest. With the third section of Numbers framed by episodesinvolving the inheritance rights of Zelophehad’s daughters(27:1–11; 36:1–13), it is clear that the story has turnedtothe future possession of the land.

Afterthe departure from Sinai, the narrative consists of a number ofIsraelite complaints in the desert. The Israelites have grown tiredof manna and ironically crave the food of Egypt, which they recall asfree fish, fruits, and vegetables. Having forgotten the hardship oflife in slavery, about which they had cried out to God, now thenation is crying out for a lifestyle of old. Moses becomes sooverwhelmed with the complaints of the people that God providesseventy elders, who, to help shoulder the leadership burden, willreceive the same prophetic spirit given to Moses.

Inchapters 13–14 twelve spies are sent out from Kadesh Barnea toperuse Canaan, but the people’s lack of faith to procure theland from the mighty people there proves costly. This final exampleof distrust moves God to punish and purify the nation. Theunbelieving generation will die in the wilderness during a forty-yearperiod of wandering.

Thediscontent in the desert involves not only food and water but alsoleadership status. Moses’ own brother and sister resent hisspecial relationship with God and challenge his exclusive authority.Later, Aaron’s special high priesthood is threatened as anotherLevitical family (Korah) vies for preeminence. Through a sequence ofsigns and wonders, God makes it clear that Moses and Aaron haveexclusive roles in God’s economy. Due to the deaths related toKorah’s rebellion and the fruitless staffs that represent thetribes of Israel, the nation’s concern about sudden extinctionin the presence of a holy God is appeased through the eternalcovenant of priesthood granted to Aaron’s family (chap. 18). Heand the Levites, at the potential expense of their own lives and aspart of their priestly service, will be held accountable for keepingthe tabernacle pure of encroachers.

Evenafter the people’s significant rebellion and punishment, Godcontinues to prove his faithfulness to his word. Hope is restored forthe nation as the Abrahamic promises of blessing are rehearsed fromthe mouth of Balaam, a Mesopotamian seer. The Israelites will indeedone day be numerous (23:10), enjoy the presence of God (23:21), beblessed and protected (24:9), and have a kingly leader (24:17). Thiswonderful mountaintop experience of hope for the exodus generation istragically countered by an even greater event of apostasy in thesubsequent scene. Reminiscent of the incident of the golden calf,when pagan revelry in the camp had foiled Moses’ interactionwith God on Sinai, apostasy at the tabernacle undermines Balaam’soracles of covenant fulfillment. Fornication with Moabite women notonly joins the nation to a foreign god but also betrays God’sholiness at his place of dwelling. If not for the zeal of Aaron’sgrandson Phinehas, who puts an end to the sin, the ensuing plaguecould have finished the nation. For his righteous action, Phinehas isawarded an eternal priesthood and ensures a future for the nation andAaron’s priestly lineage.

Inchapter 26 a second census of fighting men indicates that the old,unbelieving exodus generation has officially died off (except forJoshua and Caleb), and God is proceeding with a new people. Goddispossesses the enemies of the new generation; reinstates the tribalboundaries of the land; reinstates rules concerning worship, service,and bloodshed; and places Joshua at the helm of leadership. Chapters26–36 mention no deaths or rebellions as the nationoptimistically ends its journey in Moab, just east of the promisedland.

Moses’Farewell (Deuteronomy)

Althoughone could reasonably move into the historical books at the end ofNumbers, much would be lost in overstepping Deuteronomy. Deuteronomypresents Moses’ farewell speeches as his final words to anation on the verge of Caanan. Moses’ speeches are best viewedas sermons motivating his people to embrace the Sinai covenant, lovetheir God, and choose life over death and blessings over cursings(30:19). Moses reviews the desert experience since Mount Horeb/Sinai(chaps. 1–4) and recapitulates God’s expectations forlawful living in the land (chaps. 5–26). The covenant code isrecorded on a scroll, is designated the “Book of the Law”(31:24–26), and is to be read and revered by the future king.Finally, Moses leads the nation in covenant renewal (chaps. 29–32)before the book finishes with an account of his death (chaps. 33–34),including tributes such as “since then, no prophet has risen inIsrael like Moses, whom the Lord knew face to face” (34:10).

Deuteronomyreflects that true covenant faithfulness is achieved from a rightheart for God. If there were any previous doubts about the essence ofcovenant keeping, Moses eliminates such in Deuteronomy with thefrequent use of emotive terms. Loving God involves committing to himalone and spurning idols and foreign gods. The Ten Commandments(chap. 5) are not a list of stale requirements; they reflect thegreat Shema with the words “Love the Lord your God with allyour heart and with all your soul and with all your strength. Thesecommandments that I give you today are to be upon your hearts”(6:5–6). God desires an unrivaled love from the nation, notcold and superficial religiosity.

Obedienceby the Israelites will incur material and spiritual blessing, whereasdisobedience ends in the loss of both. Although Moses stronglycommends covenant obedience, and the nation participates in acovenant-renewal ceremony (chap. 27), it is clear that in the futurethe Israelites will fail to uphold their covenant obligations andwill suffer the consequences (29:23; 30:1–4; 31:16–17).Yet Moses looks to a day when the command for circumcised hearts(10:16) will be fulfilled by the power of God himself (30:6). In thefuture a new king will arise from the nation (17:14–20) as wellas a prophet like Moses (18:15–22). Deuteronomy thusunderscores the extent of God’s own devotion to his patriarchalpromises despite the sinful nature of his people.

Formuch of the middle and end of the twentieth century, Deuteronomy hasreceived a significant amount of attention for its apparentresemblance in structure and content to ancient Hittite and Assyriantreaties. Scholars debate the extent of similarity, but it ispossible that Deuteronomy reflects a suzerain-vassal treaty formbetween Israel and God much like the common format between nations inthe ancient Near East. Although comparative investigation of thistype can be profitable for interpretation, it is prudent to beconservative when outlining direct parallels, since Deuteronomy isnot a legal document but rather a dramatic narrative of God’sredemptive interaction with the world.

The KJV translation for a young girl, an unmarried woman orvirgin, or a female servant. At least five Hebrew words are used torefer to such women. Betulah refers to an unmarried virgin or a youngwoman who has had no sexual experience (Gen. 24:16; Job 31:1; Exod.22:16–17). A man who forcefully lay with such a woman wasexpected to marry her (Deut. 22:13–19). When David was old, avirgin was found to lie at his side to keep him warm (1Kings1:2). Israel as a nation is identified as a young virgin (Jer. 31:4).The second term is ’amah, translated “bondwoman,”“maidservant,” “maid,” “bondmaid,”“servant,” or “female servant” (Gen. 20:17;Exod. 2:5). The third is shipkhah, which refers to a female slave whois of close kinship to her master (Gen. 29:24). The fourth isna’arah, which is translated “unmarried girl”(Esther 2:4 [NIV: “young woman”]) or “servant”(Esther 4:4 [NIV: “female attendant”]; Ruth 2:23). Thefifth is ’almah, which is translated “girl” (Exod.2:8), “virgin” (Isa. 7:14), or “maiden”(Prov. 30:19 [NIV: “young woman”]).

Inthe NT, several Greek words are sometimes translated as “maiden”in the KJV. Parthenos refers to a “virgin,” male orfemale (Matt. 1:23; Acts 21:9; Rev. 14:4). Pais generally means “ayoung girl,” “maiden,”or “child” (Luke 8:51, 54). Paidiskē refers to a“female slave,” “servant maid,” or “servantgirl” (Mark 14:66; Luke 12:45). The word korasion refers to a“girl” or “little girl” (Matt. 9:24–25).Nymphē refersto a “young wife” or “bride” (Luke 12:53;Rev. 21:2).

There are few subjects more prominent in the Bible than sin;hardly a page can be found where sin is not mentioned, described, orportrayed. As the survey that follows demonstrates, sin is one of thedriving forces of the entire Bible.

Sinin the Bible

OldTestament.Sin enters the biblical story in Gen. 3. Despite God’scommandment to the contrary (2:16–17), Eve ate from the tree ofthe knowledge of good and evil at the prompting of the serpent. WhenAdam joined Eve in eating the fruit, their rebellion was complete.They attempted to cover their guilt and shame, but the fig leaveswere inadequate. God confronted them and was unimpressed with theirattempts to shift the blame. Judgment fell heavily on the serpent,Eve, and Adam; even creation itself was affected (3:17–18).

Inthe midst of judgment, God made it clear in two specific ways thatsin did not have the last word. First, God cryptically promised toput hostility between the offspring of the serpent and that of thewoman (Gen. 3:15). Although the serpent would inflict a severe blowupon the offspring of the woman, the offspring ofthe womanwould defeat the serpent. Second, God replaced the inadequatecovering of the fig leaves with animal skins (3:21). The implicationis that the death of the animal functioned as a substitute for Adamand Eve, covering their sin.

InGen. 4–11 the disastrous effects of sin and death are on fulldisplay. Not even the cataclysmic judgment of the flood was able toeradicate the wickedness of the human heart (6:5; 8:21). Humansgathered in rebellion at the tower of Babel in an effort to make aname for themselves and thwart God’s intention for them toscatter across the earth (11:1–9).

Inone sense, the rest of the OT hangs on this question: How will a holyGod satisfy his wrath against human sin and restore his relationshipwith human beings without compromising his justice? The short answeris: through Abraham and his offspring (Gen. 12:1–3), whoeventually multiplied into the nation of Israel. After God redeemedthem from their slavery in Egypt (Exod. 1–15), he brought themto Sinai to make a covenant with them that was predicated onobedience (19:5–6). A central component of this covenant wasthe sacrificial system (e.g., Lev. 1–7), which God provided asa means of dealing with sin. In addition to the regular sacrificesmade for sin throughout the year, God set apart one day a year toatone for Israel’s sins (Lev. 16). On this Day of Atonement thehigh priest took the blood of a goat into the holy of holies andsprinkled it on the mercy seat as a sin offering. Afterward he took asecond goat and confessed “all the iniquities of the people ofIsrael, and all their transgressions, all their sins, putting them onthe head of the goat, and sending it away into the wilderness....The goat shall bear on itself all their iniquities to a barrenregion; and the goat shall be set free in the wilderness” (Lev.16:21–22 NRSV). In order for the holy God to dwell with sinfulpeople, extensive provisions had to be made to enable fellowship.

Despitethese provisions, Israel repeatedly and persistently broke itscovenant with God. Even at the highest points of prosperity under thereign of David and his son Solomon, sin plagued God’s people,including the kings themselves. David committed adultery and murder(2Sam. 11:1–27). Solomon had hundreds of foreign wivesand concubines, who turned his heart away from Yahweh to other gods(1Kings 11:1–8). Once the nation split into two (Israeland Judah), sin and its consequences accelerated. Idolatry becamerampant. The result was exile from the land (Israel in 722 BC, Judahin 586 BC). But God refused to give up on his people. He promised toraise up a servant who would suffer for the sins of his people as aguilt offering (Isa. 52:13–53:12).

AfterGod’s people returned from exile, hopes remained high that thegreat prophetic promises, including the final remission of sins, wereat hand. But disillusionment quickly set in as the returnees remainedunder foreign oppression, the rebuilt temple was but a shell ofSolomon’s, and a Davidic king was nowhere to be found. Beforelong, God’s people were back to their old ways, turning awayfrom him. Even the priests, who were charged with the administrationof the sacrificial system dealing with the sin of the people, failedto properly carry out their duties (Mal. 1:6–2:9).

NewTestament.During the next four hundred years of prophetic silence, the longingfor God to finally put away the sins of his people grew. At last,when the conception and birth of Jesus were announced, it wasrevealed that he would “save his people from their sins”(Matt. 1:21). In the days before the public ministry of Jesus, Johnthe Baptist prepared the way for him by “preaching a baptism ofrepentance for the forgiveness of sins” (Luke 3:3). Whereasboth Adam and Israel were disobedient sons of God, Jesus proved to bethe obedient Son by his faithfulness to God in the face of temptation(Matt. 2:13–15; 4:1–11; 26:36–46; Luke 3:23–4:13;Rom. 5:12–21; Phil. 2:8; Heb. 5:8–10). He was also theSuffering Servant who gave his life as a ransom for many (Mark 10:45;cf. Isa. 52:13–53:12). On the cross Jesus experienced the wrathof God that God’s people rightly deserved for their sin. Withhis justice fully satisfied, God was free to forgive and justify allwho are identified with Christ by faith (Rom. 3:21–26). Whatneither the law nor the blood of bulls and goats could do, JesusChrist did with his own blood (Rom. 8:3–4; Heb. 9:1–10:18).

Afterhis resurrection and ascension, Jesus’ followers beganproclaiming the “good news” (gospel) of what Jesus didand calling to people, “Repent and be baptized, every one ofyou, in the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of your sins”(Acts 2:38). As people began to experience God’s forgiveness,they were so transformed that they forgave those who sinned againstthem (Matt. 6:12; 18:15–20; Col. 3:13). Although believerscontinue to struggle with sin in this life (Rom. 8:12–13; Gal.5:16–25), sin is no longer master over them (Rom. 6:1–23).The Holy Spirit empowers them to fight sin as they long for the newheaven and earth, where there will be no sin, no death, and no curse(Rom. 8:12–30; Rev. 21–22).

Aseven this very brief survey of the biblical story line from Genesisto Revelation shows, sin is a fundamental aspect of the Bible’splot. Sin generates the conflict that drives the biblical narrative;it is the fundamental “problem” that must be solved inorder for God’s purposes in creation to be completed.

Definitionand Terminology

Definitionof sin. Althoughno definition can capture completely the breadth and depth of theconcept of sin, it seems best to regard sin as a failure to conformto God’s law in thought, feeling, attitude, word, action,orientation, or nature. In this definition it must be remembered thatGod’s law is an expression of his perfect and holy character,so sin is not merely the violation of an impersonal law but rather isa personal offense against the Creator. Sin cannot be limited toactions. Desires (Exod. 20:17; Matt. 5:27–30), emotions (Gen.4:6–7; Matt. 5:21–26), and even our fallen nature ashuman beings (Ps. 51:5; Eph. 2:1–3) can be sinful as well.

Terminology.TheBible uses dozens of terms to speak of sin. Neatly classifying themis not easy, as there is significant overlap in the meaning and useof the various terms. Nonetheless, many of the terms fit in one ofthe following four categories.

1.Personal. Sin is an act of rebellion against God as the creator andruler of the universe. Rather than recognizing God’sself-revelation in nature and expressing gratitude, humankindfoolishly worships the creation rather than the Creator (Rom.1:19–23). The abundant love, grace, and mercy that God shows tohumans make their rebellion all the more stunning (Isa. 1:2–31).Another way of expressing the personal nature of sin is ungodlinessor impiety, which refers to lack of devotion to God (Ps. 35:16; Isa.9:17; 1Pet. 4:18).

2.Legal. A variety of words portray sin in terms drawn from thelawcourts. Words such as “transgression” and “trespass”picture sin as the violation of a specific command of God or thecrossing of a boundary that God has established (Num. 14:41–42;Rom. 4:7, 15). When individuals do things that are contrary to God’slaw, they are deemed unrighteous or unjust (Isa. 10:1; Matt. 5:45;Rom. 3:5). Breaking the covenant with God is described as violatinghis statutes and disobeying his laws (Isa. 24:5). The result isguilt, an objective legal status that is present whenever God’slaw is violated regardless of whether the individual subjectivelyfeels guilt.

3.Moral. In the most basic sense, sin is evil, the opposite of what isgood. Therefore, God’s people are to hate evil and love what isgood (Amos 5:14–15; Rom. 12:9). Similarly, Scripture contraststhe upright and the wicked (Prov. 11:11; 12:6; 14:11). One could alsoinclude here the term “iniquity,” which is used to speakof perversity or crookedness (Pss. 51:2; 78:38; Isa. 59:2). Frequentmention is also made of sexual immorality as an especially grievousdeparture from God’s ways (Num. 25:1; Rom. 1:26–27;1Cor. 5:1–11).

4.Cultic. In order for a person to approach a holy God, that individualhad to be in a state of purity before him. While a person couldbecome impure without necessarily sinning (e.g., a menstruating womanwas impure but not sinful), in some cases the term “impurity”clearly refers to a sinful state (Lev. 20:21; Isa. 1:25; Ezek.24:13). The same is true of the term “unclean.” Althoughit is frequently used in Leviticus to speak of ritual purity, inother places it clearly refers to sinful actions or states (Ps. 51:7;Prov. 20:9; Isa. 6:5; 64:6).

Metaphors

Inaddition to specific terms used for “sin,” the Bible usesseveral metaphors or images to describe it. The following four areamong the more prominent.

Missingthe mark.In both Hebrew and Greek, two of the most common words for “sin”have the sense of missing the mark. But this does not mean that sinis reduced to a mistake or an oversight. The point is not that aperson simply misses the mark of what God requires; instead, it isthat he or she is aiming for the wrong target altogether (Exod. 34:9;Deut. 9:18). Regardless of whether missing the mark is intentional ornot, the individual is still responsible (Lev. 4:2–31; Num.15:30).

Departingfrom the way.Sin as departing from God’s way is especially prominent in thewisdom literature. Contrasts are drawn between the way of therighteous and the way of the wicked (Ps. 1:1, 6; Prov. 4:11–19).Wisdom is pictured as a woman who summons people to walk in her ways,but fools ignore her and depart from her ways (Prov. 9:1–18).Those who do not walk in God’s ways are eventually destroyed bytheir own wickedness (Prov. 11:5; 12:26; 13:15).

Adultery.Since God’s relationship with his people is described as amarriage (Isa. 62:4–5; Ezek. 16:8–14; Eph. 5:25–32),it is not surprising that the Bible describes their unfaithfulness asadultery. The prophet Hosea’s marriage to an adulterous womanvividly portrays Israel’s unfaithfulness to Yahweh (Hos. 1–3).When the Israelites chase after other gods, Yahweh accuses them ofspiritual adultery in extremely graphic terms (Ezek. 16:15–52).When Christians join themselves to a prostitute or participate inidolatry, they too are engaged in spiritual adultery (1Cor.6:12–20; 10:1–22).

Slavery.Sin is portrayed as a power that enslaves. The prophets make it clearthat Israel’s bondage to foreign powers is in fact a picture ofits far greater enslavement to sin (Isa. 42:8; 43:4–7;49:1–12). Paul makes a similar point when he refers to thosewho do not know Christ as slaves to sin, unable to do anything thatpleases God (Rom. 6:1–23; 8:5–8). Sin is a cosmic powerthat is capable of using even the law to entrap people in its snare(Rom. 7:7–25).

Scopeand Consequences

Sindoes not travel alone; it brings a large collection of baggage alongwith it. Here we briefly examine its scope and consequences.

Scope.The stain of sin extends to every part of the created order. As aresult of Adam’s sin, the ground was cursed to resist humanefforts to cultivate it, producing thorns and thistles (Gen.3:17–18). The promised land is described as groaning under theweight of Israel’s sin and in need of Sabbath rest (2Chron.36:21; Jer. 12:4); Paul applies the same language to all creation aswell (Rom. 8:19–22).

Sinaffects every aspect of the individual: mind, heart, will, emotions,motives, actions, and nature (Gen. 6:5; 8:21; Jer. 17:9; Rom.3:9–18). Sometimes this reality is referred to as “totaldepravity.” This phrase means not that people are as sinful asthey could be but rather that every aspect of their lives is taintedby sin. As a descendant of Adam, every person enters the world as asinner who then sins (Rom. 5:12–21). Sin also pollutes societalstructures, corrupting culture, governments, nations, and economicmarkets, to name but a few.

Consequences.Since the two greatest commandments are to love God and to love one’sneighbor as oneself (Matt. 22:34–40), it makes sense that sinhas consequences on both the vertical and the horizontal level.Vertically, sin results in both physical and spiritual death (Gen.2:16–17; Rom. 5:12–14). It renders humanity guilty inGod’s court of law, turns us into God’s enemies, andsubjects us to God’s righteous wrath (Rom. 1:18; 3:19–20;5:6–11). On the horizontal level, sin causes conflict betweenindividuals and harms relationships of every kind. It breedsmistrust, jealousy, and selfishness that infect even the closestrelationships.

Conclusion

Nosubject is more unpleasant than sin. But a proper understanding ofsin is essential for understanding the gospel of Jesus Christ. As thePuritan Thomas Watson put it, “Until sin be bitter, Christ willnot be sweet.”

Midian was one of the sons of Abraham by his wife Keturah(Gen. 25:1–2). Just before dying, Abraham leaves everything toIsaac and sends Midian and his brothers away “to the land ofthe east” (25:5–6). The biblical narrative regards him asthe progenitor of the Midianites, who inhabited what is now southernJordan and northern Saudi Arabia. The relations between theIsraelites and the Midianites over the next centuries are generallyadversarial. Moses’ experience is the exception: After fleeingEgypt, Moses arrives in Midian, marries a Midianite woman, and has anamicable relationship with Jethro, her father (also named Reuel), whowas also a priest (Exod. 2–3). Jethro even accompanies theIsraelites during part of their wilderness wanderings and gives Mosesadvice on leading the people (Exod. 18).

Theremaining references to the Midianites in the OT are largelyantagonistic. In Genesis, the merchants who buy Joseph from hisbrothers and take him down to Egypt are Midianite (37:25–36).(The merchants are also referred to as Ishmaelites in the samenarrative, and it may well be that the term “Ishmaelite”could both refer to Ishmaelites proper and serve to denote Arabicnomadic peoples in general; see also Judg. 8:22–24.) InNumbers, the Midianites join the Moabites in attempting to stop theIsraelite advance through their territory, hiring Balaam to cursethem (Num. 22–24). Although this attempt fails, because Godwill not allow Balaam to curse the Israelites, idolatrous sexualrelations between the Israelites and the Midianites prompt God to puta plague on his own people (Num. 25). One of God’s lastinstructions to Moses before his death is to make war against theMidianites to exact revenge for their causing the Israelites to sin(Num. 31). On the other hand, when the Israelites continue theircycle of sin in the promised land, God delivers them to othernations, including the Midianites (Judg. 6–9). Israelitevictories over Midian, given to them by God, are celebrated invarious later passages in the OT (Ps. 83:9; Isa. 9:4; 10:26; Hab.3:7).

Midian was one of the sons of Abraham by his wife Keturah(Gen. 25:1–2). Just before dying, Abraham leaves everything toIsaac and sends Midian and his brothers away “to the land ofthe east” (25:5–6). The biblical narrative regards him asthe progenitor of the Midianites, who inhabited what is now southernJordan and northern Saudi Arabia. The relations between theIsraelites and the Midianites over the next centuries are generallyadversarial. Moses’ experience is the exception: After fleeingEgypt, Moses arrives in Midian, marries a Midianite woman, and has anamicable relationship with Jethro, her father (also named Reuel), whowas also a priest (Exod. 2–3). Jethro even accompanies theIsraelites during part of their wilderness wanderings and gives Mosesadvice on leading the people (Exod. 18).

Theremaining references to the Midianites in the OT are largelyantagonistic. In Genesis, the merchants who buy Joseph from hisbrothers and take him down to Egypt are Midianite (37:25–36).(The merchants are also referred to as Ishmaelites in the samenarrative, and it may well be that the term “Ishmaelite”could both refer to Ishmaelites proper and serve to denote Arabicnomadic peoples in general; see also Judg. 8:22–24.) InNumbers, the Midianites join the Moabites in attempting to stop theIsraelite advance through their territory, hiring Balaam to cursethem (Num. 22–24). Although this attempt fails, because Godwill not allow Balaam to curse the Israelites, idolatrous sexualrelations between the Israelites and the Midianites prompt God to puta plague on his own people (Num. 25). One of God’s lastinstructions to Moses before his death is to make war against theMidianites to exact revenge for their causing the Israelites to sin(Num. 31). On the other hand, when the Israelites continue theircycle of sin in the promised land, God delivers them to othernations, including the Midianites (Judg. 6–9). Israelitevictories over Midian, given to them by God, are celebrated invarious later passages in the OT (Ps. 83:9; Isa. 9:4; 10:26; Hab.3:7).

Midian was one of the sons of Abraham by his wife Keturah(Gen. 25:1–2). Just before dying, Abraham leaves everything toIsaac and sends Midian and his brothers away “to the land ofthe east” (25:5–6). The biblical narrative regards him asthe progenitor of the Midianites, who inhabited what is now southernJordan and northern Saudi Arabia. The relations between theIsraelites and the Midianites over the next centuries are generallyadversarial. Moses’ experience is the exception: After fleeingEgypt, Moses arrives in Midian, marries a Midianite woman, and has anamicable relationship with Jethro, her father (also named Reuel), whowas also a priest (Exod. 2–3). Jethro even accompanies theIsraelites during part of their wilderness wanderings and gives Mosesadvice on leading the people (Exod. 18).

Theremaining references to the Midianites in the OT are largelyantagonistic. In Genesis, the merchants who buy Joseph from hisbrothers and take him down to Egypt are Midianite (37:25–36).(The merchants are also referred to as Ishmaelites in the samenarrative, and it may well be that the term “Ishmaelite”could both refer to Ishmaelites proper and serve to denote Arabicnomadic peoples in general; see also Judg. 8:22–24.) InNumbers, the Midianites join the Moabites in attempting to stop theIsraelite advance through their territory, hiring Balaam to cursethem (Num. 22–24). Although this attempt fails, because Godwill not allow Balaam to curse the Israelites, idolatrous sexualrelations between the Israelites and the Midianites prompt God to puta plague on his own people (Num. 25). One of God’s lastinstructions to Moses before his death is to make war against theMidianites to exact revenge for their causing the Israelites to sin(Num. 31). On the other hand, when the Israelites continue theircycle of sin in the promised land, God delivers them to othernations, including the Midianites (Judg. 6–9). Israelitevictories over Midian, given to them by God, are celebrated invarious later passages in the OT (Ps. 83:9; Isa. 9:4; 10:26; Hab.3:7).

God announced to Noah that he was going to destroy all theinhabitants of the earth and commanded him to build an “ark”(Heb. tebah; Gen. 6:14–16). Apart from the Genesis floodnarrative, Exod. 2:3–5 is the only other passage in the Biblewhere this word is used, there for the ark of bulrushes in which theinfant Moses was placed. Both arks were made waterproof by a coatingof pitch (tar). An ark is something built to save people fromdrowning. It is not the name of a kind of boat as such (e.g., yacht),but rather a geometric boxlike shape. The ark was without rudder,sail, or any navigational aid.

Noahwas told to make it of “gopher wood” (Heb. goper), whichthe early Jewish Aramaic translations (Targumim) identified as cedar(NIV, NRSV, NET: “cypress wood”). The Hebrew word goperoccurs only here in the Bible, but the Akkadian equivalent (kupru) isfound at a similar point in the Epic of Gilgamesh. It was, then, theright kind of wood for a boat. The ark was to have “rooms”—thatis, cubicles (lit., “nests”)—for the differentanimals to be housed in and kept apart from other animals.

Afterthe general description of the ark (Gen. 6:14), details were providedby God on how to build it (6:15). Its length (300 cubits), width (50cubits), and height (30 cubits) were specified. “Cubit”literally means “forearm” (the distance from elbow to tipof middle finger), so the ark was approximately 450 feet (140 meters)long, 75 feet (23 meters) wide, and 45 feet (13.5 meters) high (seeNIV mg.). We cannot be exactly sure if “roof” (6:16) isthe correct translation of the Hebrew word tsohar, which may refer toa hatchway or skylight (Vulg.: fenestra [“window”]; notethe NIV 1984 mg.: “Make an opening for light”). Anotherpossibility is “pitched roof.” The usual Hebrew word,gag, is not used because that refers to a flat roof (see Josh. 2:6,8; 2 Sam. 11:2). The instruction to “finish it to a cubitabove” (RSV) refers to the pitch of the roof or its overhang.The “window” (Heb. khallon) that Noah opens in Gen. 8:6is probably to be equated with this skylight in the roof, not awindow in the side (since Noah cannot see out). In Gen. 8:13 Noahremoves the “covering” (Heb. mikseh) from the ark, so asto see the surface of the earth.

Theark was to have a door in its side, which was closed by God (Gen.6:16; 7:16). The structure was also to have three decks, whichsuggests that the ark was viewed as a microcosmos, with its threelevels matching sky, earth, and sea. Genesis 6:17 explains why an arkis needed. The destruction will be by means of water, and the arkwill carry Noah and his family (eight persons), as well as at leastone pair of every living creature. The NT refers to Noah’sconstruction of the ark (Heb. 11:7; 1 Pet. 3:20) and hisentering it (Matt. 24:38; Luke 17:27).

In the Bible, writing was carved into stone (Exod. 24:12;Josh. 8:32) or stone covered with plaster (Deut. 27:1–10),metal (Exod. 28:36), or wood (Num. 17:2–3; Ezek. 37:16). Claytablets or wooden tablets covered with wax were also used (Isa. 8:1;30:8; Hab. 2:2; Luke 1:63). However, while clay tablets were commonin Mesopotamia and among the Hittites in Anatolia, they were usedmore rarely in Israel or Egypt because of the accessibility ofpapyrus and parchment.

Writingimplements are mentioned occasionally in the Bible. A stylus—asharpened instrument fashioned from materials such as reed, bone, ormetal (e.g., Job 19:24; Jer. 17:1)—was used to carve lettersinto clay or wax. A sharpened reed could also be dipped in ink tofunction as a pen for writing on papyrus or parchment (Ps. 45:1; Isa.8:1; Matt. 5:18; Luke 16:17; 2John 13). A scribe would oftenneed additional implements to prepare the writing surface, to removeor rub out an error, to mix the ink, or to sharpen the stylus (cf.“writing kit” in Ezek. 9:2–3, 11; “scribe’sknife” in Jer. 36:23).

DuringOld and New Testament times, papyrus was one of the two most commontypes of writing material. The tall, marshy papyrus reed (Cyperuspapyrus) grew abundantly in Lower Egypt in ancient times (Job 8:11)and was used for baskets (Exod. 2:3), mats, ropes, sandals, and evenboats (Isa. 18:2). As early as 3000 BC, however, the papyrus reed wasmost known for making a kind of paper referred to simply as“papyrus.” Literary and archaeological evidencedemonstrates that papyrus was used extensively across the Near Eastwell into the first Christian millennium.

Papyrusstalks are typically the diameter of a human palm and roughlytriangular in shape. Sections were cut about a foot long. The innerfibrous pith was cut lengthwise into thin strips that were placedside by side on a board. A second layer of strips was placed at rightangles. The resulting “sheet” was pounded together. Plinythe Elder (Nat. 13.11–13) claimed that the Nile water glued thestrips together, but actually the crushed pulp did so. The driedsheets were trimmed to a standard size, varying by “factory,”typically ten inches high by eight inches wide.

Sheets(with the horizontal fibers on top) were glued side by side with thesheet on the left slightly lapping over the right, so that a scribe’spen slid “downhill” when moving onto the next sheet. Itwas not uncommon for a column of text to be on a joint (unlikeleather sheets, whose sewn joint would not hold text). The joinedsheets formed a roll (scroll) of standard length (about twelve feet)called a chartēs(2John 12), the typical unit of sale. It is estimated that inNT times a chartēs cost four denars (=approximately U.S.$450). Secretaries cut sheets off a chartēs or glued onadditional length as the task required,but the typical ancient letter, such as 3John, was about onesheet in length.

Theother most common type of writing material was leather parchment.Made chiefly from the skins of sheep or goats, parchment would beprepared by soaking, dehairing, scraping, and washing the hide. Theskin would be stretched on a frame and smoothed with a pumice stone.Vellum is a finer grade of parchment and is made from calfskin orkidskin. Sections of parchment also were sewn together to make aroll. Paul asked Timothy to bring him “the parchments”(2Tim. 4:13).

Papyrushad the advantage of being lightweight and durable, and perhaps lessexpensive, so it was often preferred over clay, wooden, metal, orstone tablets, or even parchment (at least until the third centuryAD). However, papyrus had two major disadvantages: it deterioratedrapidly in water and was almost exclusively from Egypt. Since ink waswater-soluble, all documents were routinely protected from moisture,so trade issues with Egypt may be to blame for major shifts toparchment. Unfortunately, only ancient papyri left in dry locationsin dry climates have survived, explaining why the bulk of knownpapyri are from the Egyptian desert.

Papermade of wood pulp or similar fibers was invented in China and was notadopted in the West until the eighth century or later.

In the Bible, writing was carved into stone (Exod. 24:12;Josh. 8:32) or stone covered with plaster (Deut. 27:1–10),metal (Exod. 28:36), or wood (Num. 17:2–3; Ezek. 37:16). Claytablets or wooden tablets covered with wax were also used (Isa. 8:1;30:8; Hab. 2:2; Luke 1:63). However, while clay tablets were commonin Mesopotamia and among the Hittites in Anatolia, they were usedmore rarely in Israel or Egypt because of the accessibility ofpapyrus and parchment.

Writingimplements are mentioned occasionally in the Bible. A stylus—asharpened instrument fashioned from materials such as reed, bone, ormetal (e.g., Job 19:24; Jer. 17:1)—was used to carve lettersinto clay or wax. A sharpened reed could also be dipped in ink tofunction as a pen for writing on papyrus or parchment (Ps. 45:1; Isa.8:1; Matt. 5:18; Luke 16:17; 2John 13). A scribe would oftenneed additional implements to prepare the writing surface, to removeor rub out an error, to mix the ink, or to sharpen the stylus (cf.“writing kit” in Ezek. 9:2–3, 11; “scribe’sknife” in Jer. 36:23).

DuringOld and New Testament times, papyrus was one of the two most commontypes of writing material. The tall, marshy papyrus reed (Cyperuspapyrus) grew abundantly in Lower Egypt in ancient times (Job 8:11)and was used for baskets (Exod. 2:3), mats, ropes, sandals, and evenboats (Isa. 18:2). As early as 3000 BC, however, the papyrus reed wasmost known for making a kind of paper referred to simply as“papyrus.” Literary and archaeological evidencedemonstrates that papyrus was used extensively across the Near Eastwell into the first Christian millennium.

Papyrusstalks are typically the diameter of a human palm and roughlytriangular in shape. Sections were cut about a foot long. The innerfibrous pith was cut lengthwise into thin strips that were placedside by side on a board. A second layer of strips was placed at rightangles. The resulting “sheet” was pounded together. Plinythe Elder (Nat. 13.11–13) claimed that the Nile water glued thestrips together, but actually the crushed pulp did so. The driedsheets were trimmed to a standard size, varying by “factory,”typically ten inches high by eight inches wide.

Sheets(with the horizontal fibers on top) were glued side by side with thesheet on the left slightly lapping over the right, so that a scribe’spen slid “downhill” when moving onto the next sheet. Itwas not uncommon for a column of text to be on a joint (unlikeleather sheets, whose sewn joint would not hold text). The joinedsheets formed a roll (scroll) of standard length (about twelve feet)called a chartēs(2John 12), the typical unit of sale. It is estimated that inNT times a chartēs cost four denars (=approximately U.S.$450). Secretaries cut sheets off a chartēs or glued onadditional length as the task required,but the typical ancient letter, such as 3John, was about onesheet in length.

Theother most common type of writing material was leather parchment.Made chiefly from the skins of sheep or goats, parchment would beprepared by soaking, dehairing, scraping, and washing the hide. Theskin would be stretched on a frame and smoothed with a pumice stone.Vellum is a finer grade of parchment and is made from calfskin orkidskin. Sections of parchment also were sewn together to make aroll. Paul asked Timothy to bring him “the parchments”(2Tim. 4:13).

Papyrushad the advantage of being lightweight and durable, and perhaps lessexpensive, so it was often preferred over clay, wooden, metal, orstone tablets, or even parchment (at least until the third centuryAD). However, papyrus had two major disadvantages: it deterioratedrapidly in water and was almost exclusively from Egypt. Since ink waswater-soluble, all documents were routinely protected from moisture,so trade issues with Egypt may be to blame for major shifts toparchment. Unfortunately, only ancient papyri left in dry locationsin dry climates have survived, explaining why the bulk of knownpapyri are from the Egyptian desert.

Papermade of wood pulp or similar fibers was invented in China and was notadopted in the West until the eighth century or later.

In the Bible, writing was carved into stone (Exod. 24:12;Josh. 8:32) or stone covered with plaster (Deut. 27:1–10),metal (Exod. 28:36), or wood (Num. 17:2–3; Ezek. 37:16). Claytablets or wooden tablets covered with wax were also used (Isa. 8:1;30:8; Hab. 2:2; Luke 1:63). However, while clay tablets were commonin Mesopotamia and among the Hittites in Anatolia, they were usedmore rarely in Israel or Egypt because of the accessibility ofpapyrus and parchment.

Writingimplements are mentioned occasionally in the Bible. A stylus—asharpened instrument fashioned from materials such as reed, bone, ormetal (e.g., Job 19:24; Jer. 17:1)—was used to carve lettersinto clay or wax. A sharpened reed could also be dipped in ink tofunction as a pen for writing on papyrus or parchment (Ps. 45:1; Isa.8:1; Matt. 5:18; Luke 16:17; 2John 13). A scribe would oftenneed additional implements to prepare the writing surface, to removeor rub out an error, to mix the ink, or to sharpen the stylus (cf.“writing kit” in Ezek. 9:2–3, 11; “scribe’sknife” in Jer. 36:23).

DuringOld and New Testament times, papyrus was one of the two most commontypes of writing material. The tall, marshy papyrus reed (Cyperuspapyrus) grew abundantly in Lower Egypt in ancient times (Job 8:11)and was used for baskets (Exod. 2:3), mats, ropes, sandals, and evenboats (Isa. 18:2). As early as 3000 BC, however, the papyrus reed wasmost known for making a kind of paper referred to simply as“papyrus.” Literary and archaeological evidencedemonstrates that papyrus was used extensively across the Near Eastwell into the first Christian millennium.

Papyrusstalks are typically the diameter of a human palm and roughlytriangular in shape. Sections were cut about a foot long. The innerfibrous pith was cut lengthwise into thin strips that were placedside by side on a board. A second layer of strips was placed at rightangles. The resulting “sheet” was pounded together. Plinythe Elder (Nat. 13.11–13) claimed that the Nile water glued thestrips together, but actually the crushed pulp did so. The driedsheets were trimmed to a standard size, varying by “factory,”typically ten inches high by eight inches wide.

Sheets(with the horizontal fibers on top) were glued side by side with thesheet on the left slightly lapping over the right, so that a scribe’spen slid “downhill” when moving onto the next sheet. Itwas not uncommon for a column of text to be on a joint (unlikeleather sheets, whose sewn joint would not hold text). The joinedsheets formed a roll (scroll) of standard length (about twelve feet)called a chartēs(2John 12), the typical unit of sale. It is estimated that inNT times a chartēs cost four denars (=approximately U.S.$450). Secretaries cut sheets off a chartēs or glued onadditional length as the task required,but the typical ancient letter, such as 3John, was about onesheet in length.

Theother most common type of writing material was leather parchment.Made chiefly from the skins of sheep or goats, parchment would beprepared by soaking, dehairing, scraping, and washing the hide. Theskin would be stretched on a frame and smoothed with a pumice stone.Vellum is a finer grade of parchment and is made from calfskin orkidskin. Sections of parchment also were sewn together to make aroll. Paul asked Timothy to bring him “the parchments”(2Tim. 4:13).

Papyrushad the advantage of being lightweight and durable, and perhaps lessexpensive, so it was often preferred over clay, wooden, metal, orstone tablets, or even parchment (at least until the third centuryAD). However, papyrus had two major disadvantages: it deterioratedrapidly in water and was almost exclusively from Egypt. Since ink waswater-soluble, all documents were routinely protected from moisture,so trade issues with Egypt may be to blame for major shifts toparchment. Unfortunately, only ancient papyri left in dry locationsin dry climates have survived, explaining why the bulk of knownpapyri are from the Egyptian desert.

Papermade of wood pulp or similar fibers was invented in China and was notadopted in the West until the eighth century or later.

In the Bible, writing was carved into stone (Exod. 24:12;Josh. 8:32) or stone covered with plaster (Deut. 27:1–10),metal (Exod. 28:36), or wood (Num. 17:2–3; Ezek. 37:16). Claytablets or wooden tablets covered with wax were also used (Isa. 8:1;30:8; Hab. 2:2; Luke 1:63). However, while clay tablets were commonin Mesopotamia and among the Hittites in Anatolia, they were usedmore rarely in Israel or Egypt because of the accessibility ofpapyrus and parchment.

Writingimplements are mentioned occasionally in the Bible. A stylus—asharpened instrument fashioned from materials such as reed, bone, ormetal (e.g., Job 19:24; Jer. 17:1)—was used to carve lettersinto clay or wax. A sharpened reed could also be dipped in ink tofunction as a pen for writing on papyrus or parchment (Ps. 45:1; Isa.8:1; Matt. 5:18; Luke 16:17; 2John 13). A scribe would oftenneed additional implements to prepare the writing surface, to removeor rub out an error, to mix the ink, or to sharpen the stylus (cf.“writing kit” in Ezek. 9:2–3, 11; “scribe’sknife” in Jer. 36:23).

DuringOld and New Testament times, papyrus was one of the two most commontypes of writing material. The tall, marshy papyrus reed (Cyperuspapyrus) grew abundantly in Lower Egypt in ancient times (Job 8:11)and was used for baskets (Exod. 2:3), mats, ropes, sandals, and evenboats (Isa. 18:2). As early as 3000 BC, however, the papyrus reed wasmost known for making a kind of paper referred to simply as“papyrus.” Literary and archaeological evidencedemonstrates that papyrus was used extensively across the Near Eastwell into the first Christian millennium.

Papyrusstalks are typically the diameter of a human palm and roughlytriangular in shape. Sections were cut about a foot long. The innerfibrous pith was cut lengthwise into thin strips that were placedside by side on a board. A second layer of strips was placed at rightangles. The resulting “sheet” was pounded together. Plinythe Elder (Nat. 13.11–13) claimed that the Nile water glued thestrips together, but actually the crushed pulp did so. The driedsheets were trimmed to a standard size, varying by “factory,”typically ten inches high by eight inches wide.

Sheets(with the horizontal fibers on top) were glued side by side with thesheet on the left slightly lapping over the right, so that a scribe’spen slid “downhill” when moving onto the next sheet. Itwas not uncommon for a column of text to be on a joint (unlikeleather sheets, whose sewn joint would not hold text). The joinedsheets formed a roll (scroll) of standard length (about twelve feet)called a chartēs(2John 12), the typical unit of sale. It is estimated that inNT times a chartēs cost four denars (=approximately U.S.$450). Secretaries cut sheets off a chartēs or glued onadditional length as the task required,but the typical ancient letter, such as 3John, was about onesheet in length.

Theother most common type of writing material was leather parchment.Made chiefly from the skins of sheep or goats, parchment would beprepared by soaking, dehairing, scraping, and washing the hide. Theskin would be stretched on a frame and smoothed with a pumice stone.Vellum is a finer grade of parchment and is made from calfskin orkidskin. Sections of parchment also were sewn together to make aroll. Paul asked Timothy to bring him “the parchments”(2Tim. 4:13).

Papyrushad the advantage of being lightweight and durable, and perhaps lessexpensive, so it was often preferred over clay, wooden, metal, orstone tablets, or even parchment (at least until the third centuryAD). However, papyrus had two major disadvantages: it deterioratedrapidly in water and was almost exclusively from Egypt. Since ink waswater-soluble, all documents were routinely protected from moisture,so trade issues with Egypt may be to blame for major shifts toparchment. Unfortunately, only ancient papyri left in dry locationsin dry climates have survived, explaining why the bulk of knownpapyri are from the Egyptian desert.

Papermade of wood pulp or similar fibers was invented in China and was notadopted in the West until the eighth century or later.

The biblical corpus known as the Pentateuch consists of thefirst five books of the OT: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, andDeuteronomy. The word “Pentateuch” comes from two Greekwords (penta [“five”] and teuchos [“scroll case,book”]) and is a designation attested in the early churchfathers. The collection is also commonly known as the “FiveBooks of Moses,” “the Law of Moses,” or simply the“Law,” reflecting the traditional Jewish name “Torah,”meaning “law” or “instruction.” The Torah isthe first of three major sections that comprise the Hebrew Bible(Torah, Nebiim, Ketubim [Law, Prophets, Writings]); thus for bothJewish and Christian traditions it represents the introduction to theBible as a whole as well as its interpretive foundation.

TheEnglish names for the books of the Pentateuch came from the LatinVulgate, based on the Greek Septuagint. These appellations are mainlydescriptive of their content. Genesis derives from “generations”or “origin,” Exodus means “going out,”Leviticus represents priestly (Levitical) service, Numbers refers tothe censuses taken in the book, and Deuteronomy indicates “secondlaw” because of Moses’ rehearsal of God’s commands(see Deut. 17:18). The Hebrew designations derive from opening wordsin each book. Beresh*t (Genesis) means “in the beginning”;Shemot (Exodus), “[these are] the names”; Wayyiqra’(Leviticus), “and he called”; Bemidbar (Numbers), “inthe desert”; and Debarim (Deuteronomy), “[these are] thewords.”

Referringto the Pentateuch as “Torah” or the “Law”reflects the climactic reception of God’s commands at MountSinai, which were to govern Israel’s life and worship in thepromised land, including their journey to get there. However, callingthe Pentateuch the “Law” can be a bit misleading becausethere are relatively few passages that simply list a set of commands,and all law passages are set within a broad narrative. The Pentateuchis a grand story that begins on a universal scale with the creationof the cosmos and ends on the plains of Moab as the readeranticipates the fulfillment of God’s plan to redeem a fallenworld through his chosen people. The books offer distinct qualitiesand content, but they are also inherently dependent upon one another,as the narrative remains unbroken through the five volumes. Genesisends with Jacob’s family in Egypt, and, though many years havepassed, this is where Exodus begins. Leviticus outlines cultic lifeat the tabernacle (constructed at the end of Exodus) and even beginswithout a clear subject (“And he called...”),which requires the reader to supply “the Lord” from thelast verse of Exodus. Numbers begins with an account of Israel’sfighting men as the nation prepares to leave Sinai, and Deuteronomyis Moses’ farewell address to the nation on the cusp of thepromised land.

Authorshipand Composition

Althoughthe Pentateuch is technically an anonymous work, Jewish and Christiantradition attributes its authorship to Moses, the main figure of thestory from Exodus to Deuteronomy. The arguments for attributing theauthorship of the Pentateuch to Moses come from internal evidencewithin both Testaments. That Moses is responsible for at leastportions of the Pentateuch is suggested by references to his explicitliterary activity reflected within the narrative itself (Exod. 17:14;24:4; 34:28; Num. 33:2; Deut. 31:9, 22, 24), if not implied invarious literary formulas such as “the Lord said to Moses”(e.g., Exod. 39:1, 7, 21; Lev. 4:1; 11:1; 13:1; Num. 1:1; 2:1).Mosaic authorship receives support from the historical books, whichuse terms such as “the Book of the Law of Moses” invarious forms and references in the preexilic history (Josh. 8:30–35;23:6; 2Kings 14:6) as well as the postexilic history (e.g.,2Chron. 25:4; Ezra 6:18; Neh. 13:1). The same titles are usedby NT authors (e.g., Mark 12:26; Luke 24:44; John 1:45), evenreferring to the Pentateuch simply by the name “Moses” atvarious points (e.g., Luke 16:29; 24:27; 2Cor. 3:15).

Evenwith these examples, nowhere does the text explicitly state thatMoses is responsible for the entire compilation of the Pentateuch orthat he penned it with his own hand. Rather, a number of factorspoint to a later hand at work: Moses’ death and burial arereferenced (Deut. 34), the conquest of Canaan is referred to as past(Deut. 2:12), and there is evidence that the names of people andplaces were updated and explained for later generations (e.g., “Dan”in Gen. 14:14; cf. Josh. 19:47; Judg. 18:28b–29). Based onthese factors, it is reasonable to believe that the Pentateuchunderwent editorial alteration as it was preserved within Jewish lifeand took its final shape after Moses’ lifetime.

Overthe last century, the Documentary Hypothesis has dominated academicdiscussion of the Pentateuch’s composition. This theory wascrystallized by Julius Wellhausen in his Prolegomena to the Historyof Israel in the late nineteenth century and posits that thePentateuch originated from a variety of ancient sources derived fromdistinct authors and time periods that have been transmitted andjoined through a long and complex process. Traditionally thesedocuments are identified as J, E, D, and P. The J source is adocument authored by the “Yahwist” (German, Jahwist) inJudah around 840 BC and is so called because the name “Yahweh”is used frequently in its text. The E source stands for “Elohist”because of its preference for the divine title “Elohim”and was composed in Israel around 700 BC. The D source stands for“Deuteronomy” because it reflects material found in thatbook; it was composed sometime around Josiah’s reform in 621BC. The P document reflects material that priests would be concernedwith in the postexilic time period, approximately 500 BC. This theoryand its related forms stem from the scholarly concern over variousliterary characteristics such as the use of divine names; doubletsand duplications in the text; observable patterns of style,terminology, and themes; and alleged discrepancies in facts,descriptions, and geographic or historical perspective.

Variousdocumentary theories of composition have flourished over the lastcentury of pentateuchal scholarship and still have many adherents.However, lack of scholarly agreement about the dating and characterof the sources and the rise of other literary approaches to the texthave many conservative and liberal scholars calling into question theaccuracy and even interpretive benefit of the source theories.Moreover, if the literary observations used to create sourcedistinctions can be explained in other ways, then the DocumentaryHypothesis is significantly undermined.

Inits canonical form, the pentateuchal narrative combines artisticprose, poetry, and law to tell a dramatic history spanning thousandsof years. One could divide the story into six major sections:primeval history (Gen. 1–11), the patriarchs (Gen. 12–50),liberation from Egypt (Exod. 1–18), Sinai (Exod. 19:1–Num.10:10), wilderness journey (Num. 10:11–36:13), and Moses’farewell (Deuteronomy).

PrimevalHistory (Gen. 1–11)

Itis possible to divide Genesis into two parts based upon subjectmatter: the origin of creation and humankind’s call, fall, andpunishment (chaps 1–11), and the origin of a family that wouldbecome God’s conduit of salvation and blessing for the world(chaps. 12–50).

Theprimeval history comprises essentially the first eleven chapters ofGenesis, ending with the genealogy of Abraham in 11:26. Strictlyspeaking, 11:27 begins the patriarchal section with the sixthinstance of the toledot formula found in Genesis, referencingAbraham’s father, Terah. The Hebrew phrase ’elleh toledot(“these are the generations of”) occurs in eleven placesin Genesis and reflects a deliberate structural marker that one mayuse to divide the book into distinct episodes (2:4; 5:1; 6:9; 10:1;11:10; 11:27; 25:12; 25:19; 36:1; 36:9; 37:2).

Genesisas we know it exhibits two distinct creation accounts in its firsttwo chapters. Although critical scholars contend that the differingaccounts reflect contradictory stories and different authors, it isjust as convenient to recognize that the two stories vary in styleand some content because they attempt to accomplish different aims.The first account, 1:1–2:3, is an artistic, poetic,symmetrical, and “heavenly” view of creation by atranscendent God, who spoke creation into being. In the secondaccount, 2:4–25, God is immanently involved with creation as heis present in a garden, breathes life into Adam’s nostrils,dialogues and problem-solves, fashions Eve from Adam’s side,and bestows warnings and commands. Both perspectives are foundationalfor providing an accurate view of God’s interaction withcreation in the rest of Scripture.

Asone progresses through chapters 1–11, the story quickly changesfrom what God has established as “very good” to discord,sin, and shame. Chapter 3 reflects the “fall” of humanityas Adam and Eve sin in eating from the forbidden tree in directdisobedience to God. The serpent shrewdly deceives the first couple,and thus all three incur God’s curses, which extend tounlimited generations. Sin that breaks the vertical relationshipbetween God and humanity intrinsically leads to horizontal strifebetween humans. Sin and disunity on the earth only intensify as onemoves from the murder story of Cain and Abel in chapter 4 to theflood in chapters 5–9. Violence, evil, and disorder have sopervaded the earth that God sends a deluge to wipe out all livingthings, save one righteous man and his family, along with an ark fullof animals. God makes the first covenant recorded in the biblicalnarrative with Noah (6:18), promising to save him from the flood ashe commands Noah to build an ark and gather food for survival. Noahfulfills all that God has commanded (6:22; 7:5), and God remembershis promise (8:1). This is the prototypical salvation story for therest of Scripture.

Chapter9 reflects a new start for humanity and all living things as thecreation mandate to “be fruitful and increase in number; fillthe earth and subdue it,” first introduced in 1:28, is restatedalong with the reminder that humankind is made in God’s image(1:27). Bearing the image involves new responsibilities andstipulations in the postdiluvian era (9:2–6). There will beenmity between humans and animals, animals are now appropriate food,and yet lifeblood will be specially revered. God still requiresaccountability for just and discriminate shedding of blood andorderly relationships, as he has proved in the deluge, but now herelinquishes this responsibility to humankind. In return, Godpromises never to destroy all flesh again, and he will set therainbow in the sky as a personal reminder. Like the covenant withNoah in 6:18, the postdiluvian covenant involves humankind fulfillingcommands (9:1–7) and God remembering his covenant (9:8–17),specially termed “everlasting” (9:16).

Theprimeval commentary on humankind’s unabating sinful condition(e.g., 6:5; 8:21) proves true as Noah becomes drunk and naked and hisson Ham (father of Canaan) shames him by failing to conceal hisfather’s negligence. Instead of multiplying, filling, andsubduing the earth as God has intended, humankind collaborates tomake a name for itself by building a sort of stairway to heavenwithin a special city (11:4). God foils such haughty plans byscattering the people across the earth and confusing their language.Expressed in an orderly chiastic structure, the story of the tower ofBabel demonstrates that God condescends (11:5) to set things straightwith humanity.

Patriarchs(Gen. 12–50)

Althoughthe primeval history is foundational for understanding the rest ofthe Bible, more space in Genesis is devoted to the patriarchalfigures Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph. In general, the Abrahamicnarrative spans chapters 12–25, the story of Isaac serves as atransition to the Jacob cycle of chapters 25–37, and the Josephnarrative finishes the book of Genesis in chapters 37–50.

Thetransition from the primeval history to the patriarchs (11:27–32)reveals how Abraham, the father of Israel, moves from the east andsettles in Harran as the family ventures to settle in Canaan. InHarran, Abraham receives the call of God’s redemptive plan,which reverberates through Scripture. God will bless him with land,make him a great nation, grant him special favor, and use him as aconduit of blessings to the world (12:1–3). In 11:30 is theindication that the barrenness of Abraham’s wife (Sarah)relates to the essence of God’s magnificent promises. How onebecomes great in name and number, secures enemy territory, and is tobless all peoples without a descendant becomes the compellingquestion of the Abrahamic narrative. The interchange betweenAbraham’s faith in God and his attempts to contrive covenantfulfillment colors the entire narrative leading up to chapter 22. Itis there that Abraham’s faith is ultimately put to the test asGod asks him to sacrifice the promised son, Isaac. Abraham passesGod’s faith test, and a ram is provided to take Isaac’splace. This everlasting covenant that was previously sealed by thesign of circumcision is climactically procured for future generationsthrough Abraham’s exemplary obedience (22:16–18; cf.15:1–21; 17:1–27).

Thepatriarchal stories that follow show that the Abrahamic promises arerenewed with subsequent generations (see 26:3–4; 28:13–14)and survive various threats to fulfillment. The story of Isaac servesmainly as a bridge to the Jacob cycle, as he exists primarily as apassive character in relation to Abraham and Jacob.

Deception,struggle, rivalry, and favoritism characterize the Jacob narrative,as first exemplified in the jostling of twin boys in Rebekah’swomb (25:22). Jacob supplants his twin brother, Esau, for thefirstborn’s blessing and birthright. He flees to Paddan Aram(northern Mesopotamia), marries two sisters, takes their maidservantsas concubines, and has eleven children, followed by a falling-outwith his father-in-law. Jacob’s struggle for God’sblessing that began with Esau comes to a head in his wrestlingencounter with God at Peniel. Ultimately, Jacob emerges victoriousand receives God’s blessing and a name change, “Israel”(“one who struggles with God”). Throughout the Jacobstory, God demonstrates his faithfulness to the Abrahamic covenantand reiterates the promises to Jacob, most notably at Bethel (chaps.28; 35). The interpersonal strife of Jacob’s life is thusenveloped within a message of reconciliation not just with Esau(chap. 33) but ultimately with God. The reader learns from theepisodes in Jacob’s life that although God works through thelives of weak and failing people, his promises for Israel remainsecure.

AlthoughJacob and his family are already living in Canaan, God intends forthem to move to Egypt and grow into a powerful nation beforefulfilling their conquest of the promised land (see 15:13–16).The story of Joseph explains how the family ends up in Egypt at theclose of Genesis. Joseph is specially loved by his father, whichelicits significant jealousy from his brothers, who sell him off tosome nomads and fabricate the alibi that he has been killed by a wildbeast. Joseph winds up in Pharaoh’s household and eventuallybecomes his top official. When famine strikes Canaan years later,Joseph’s brothers go to Egypt to purchase food from the royalcourt, and Joseph reveals his identity to them in an emotionalreunion. Jacob’s entire family moves to Egypt to live for atime in prosperity under Joseph’s care. The Joseph storyillustrates the mysterious relationship of human decision and divinesovereignty (50:20).

Liberationfrom Egypt (Exod. 1–18)

Genesisshows how Abraham develops into a large family. Exodus shows how thisfamily becomes a nation—enslaved, freed, and then taught theways of God. Although it appears that Exodus continues a rivetingstory of God’s chosen people, it is actually the identity andpower of God that take center stage.

Manyyears have passed since Joseph’s family arrived in Egypt. TheHebrews’ good standing in Egypt has also diminished as theirmultiplication and fruitfulness during the intervening period—justas God had promised Abraham (Gen. 17:4–8)—became anational threat to the Egyptians. Abraham’s family will spendtime in Egyptian slavery before being liberated with many possessionsin hand (cf. Gen. 15:13–14).

Inthe book of Exodus the drama of suffering and salvation serves as thevehicle for God’s self-disclosure to a single man, Moses. Mosesis an Israelite of destiny even from birth, as he providentiallyavoids infant death and rises to power and influence in Pharaoh’shousehold. Moses never loses his passion for his own people, and hekills an Egyptian who was beating a fellow Hebrew. Moses flees toobscurity in the desert, where he meets God and his call to lead hispeople out of Egypt and to the promised land (3:7–8; 6:8). Likethe days of Noah’s salvation, God has remembered his covenantwith the patriarchs and responded to the groans of his people inEgypt (2:24; 6:4–5; cf. Gen. 8:1). God reveals himself, and hispersonal name “Yahweh” (“I am”), to Moses inthe great theophany of the burning bush at Mount Horeb (Sinai), thesame place where later he will receive God’s law. Moses doubtshis own ability to carry out the task of confronting Pharaoh andleading the exodus, but God foretells that many amazing signs andwonders not only will make the escape possible but also willultimately reveal the mighty nature of God to the Hebrews, Egypt, andpresumably the world (6:7; 7:5).

Thispromise of creating a nation of his people through deliverance issuccinctly conveyed in the classic covenant formula that findssignificance in the rest of the OT: “I will take you as my ownpeople, and I will be your God” (6:7). Wielding great powerover nature and at times even human decision, God “hardens”Pharaoh’s heart and sends ten plagues to demonstrate his favorfor his own people and wrath against their enemy nation. The tenthplague on the firstborn of all in Egypt provides the context for thePassover as God spares the firstborn of Israel in response to theplacement of sacrificial blood on the doorposts of their homes.Pharaoh persists in the attempt to overtake the Israelites in thedesert, where the power of God climaxes in parting the Red Sea (orSea of Reeds). The Israelites successfully pass through, buttheEgyptian army drowns in pursuit. This is the great salvationevent of the OT.

Thesong of praise for God’s deliverance (15:1–21) quicklyturns to cries of groaning in the seventy days following the exodusas the people of the nation, grumbling about their circ*mstances inthe desert, quickly demonstrate their fleeting trust in the one whohas saved them (Exod. 15:22–18:27). When a shortage of waterand food confronts the people, their faith in God’s care provesshallow, and they turn on Moses. Even though the special marks ofGod’s protection have been evident in the wilderness throughthe pillars of cloud and fire, the angel of God, the provision ofmanna and quail, water from the rock, and the leadership of Moses,the nation continually fails God’s tests of trust and obedience(16:4; cf. 17:2; 20:20). Yet God continues to endure with his peoplethrough the leadership of Moses.

Sinai(Exod. 19:1–Num. 10:10)

Mostof the pentateuchal narrative takes place at Mount Sinai. It is therethat Israel receives national legislation and prescriptions for thetabernacle, the priesthood, feasts and festivals, and othercovenantal demands for living as God’s chosen people. Theeleven-month stay at Sinai takes the biblical reader through thecenter of the Pentateuch, covering approximately the last half ofExodus, all of Leviticus, and the first third of Numbers, before thenation leaves this sacred site and sojourns in the wilderness.Several key sections of the Pentateuch fall withinthe Sinaistory: the Decalogue (Exod. 20:1–17), the Book of the Covenant(Exod. 20:22–23:33), the tabernacle prescriptions (Exod.25–31), the tabernacle construction (Exod. 35–40), themanual on ritual worship (Lev. 1–7), and the Holiness Code(Lev. 17–27).

Theevents and instruction at Sinai are central to the Israelitereligious experience and reflect the third eternal covenant that Godestablishes in the Pentateuch—this time with Israel, wherebythe Sabbath is the sign (Exod. 31:16; cf. Noahic/rainbow covenant[Gen. 9:16] and the Abrahamic/circumcision covenant [Gen. 17:7, 13,19]). The offices of prophet and priest develop into clear view inthis portion of the Pentateuch. Moses exemplifies the dual propheticfunction of representing the people when speaking with God and, inturn, God when speaking to the people. The priesthood is bestowedupon Aaron and his descendants in Exodus and inaugurated within oneof the few narrative sections of Leviticus (Lev. 8–10). Thegiving of the law, the ark, the tabernacle, the priesthood, and theSabbath are all a part of God’s making himself “known”to Israel and the world, which is a constant theme in Exodus (see,e.g., 25:22; 29:43, 46; 31:13).

TheIsraelites’ stay at Sinai opens with one of the greatesttheophanies of the Bible: God speaks aloud to the people (Exod.19–20) and then is envisioned as a consuming fire (Exod. 24).After communicating the Ten Commandments (“ten words”)directly to the people (Exod. 34:28; Deut. 4:13; 10:4), Mosesmediates the rest of the detailed obligations that will govern thefuture life of the nation. The covenant is ratified in ceremonialfashion (Exod. 24), and the Israelites vow to fulfill all that hasbeen spoken. God expects Israel to be a holy nation (Exod. 19:6) withwhom he may dwell, but Moses descends Sinai only to find that theIsraelites have already violated the essence of the Decalogue byfashioning a golden calf to worship as that which delivered them fromEgypt (Exod. 32). This places Israel’s future and calling injeopardy, but Moses intercedes for his people, and God graciouslypromises to preserve the nation and abide with it in his mercy, evenwhile punishing the guilty. This becomes prototypical of God’srelationship with his people in the future (Exod. 34:6–7).

Exodusends with the consecration of the tabernacle and the descent of God’spresence there. With the tent of worship in order, the priesthood andits rituals can be officially established. Leviticus reflects divineinstructions for how a sinful people may live safely in closeproximity to God. Holy living involves dealing with sin andminimizing the need for atonement, purification, and restitution. Thesacrificial and worship system established in Leviticus is based on aworldview of order, perfection, and purity, which should characterizea people who are commanded, “Be holy because I, the Lord yourGod, am holy’ (Lev. 19:2; cf. 11:44–45; 20:26). Withthese rules in place, the Israelites can make final preparations todepart Sinai and move forward on their journey. Numbers 1–10spans a nineteen-day period of such activities as the Israelitesbegin to focus on dispossessing their enemies. These chapters reflecta census of fighting men, the priority of purity, the dedication ofthe tabernacle, and the observance of the Passover before commencingthe quest to Canaan.

WildernessJourney (Num. 10:11–36:13)

Therest of the book of Numbers covers the remainder of a forty-yearstretch of great peaks and valleys in the faith and future of thenation. Chapters 11–25 recount the various events that show theexodus generation’s lack of trust in God. Chapters 26–36reveal a more positive section whereby a new generation prepares forthe conquest. With the third section of Numbers framed by episodesinvolving the inheritance rights of Zelophehad’s daughters(27:1–11; 36:1–13), it is clear that the story has turnedtothe future possession of the land.

Afterthe departure from Sinai, the narrative consists of a number ofIsraelite complaints in the desert. The Israelites have grown tiredof manna and ironically crave the food of Egypt, which they recall asfree fish, fruits, and vegetables. Having forgotten the hardship oflife in slavery, about which they had cried out to God, now thenation is crying out for a lifestyle of old. Moses becomes sooverwhelmed with the complaints of the people that God providesseventy elders, who, to help shoulder the leadership burden, willreceive the same prophetic spirit given to Moses.

Inchapters 13–14 twelve spies are sent out from Kadesh Barnea toperuse Canaan, but the people’s lack of faith to procure theland from the mighty people there proves costly. This final exampleof distrust moves God to punish and purify the nation. Theunbelieving generation will die in the wilderness during a forty-yearperiod of wandering.

Thediscontent in the desert involves not only food and water but alsoleadership status. Moses’ own brother and sister resent hisspecial relationship with God and challenge his exclusive authority.Later, Aaron’s special high priesthood is threatened as anotherLevitical family (Korah) vies for preeminence. Through a sequence ofsigns and wonders, God makes it clear that Moses and Aaron haveexclusive roles in God’s economy. Due to the deaths related toKorah’s rebellion and the fruitless staffs that represent thetribes of Israel, the nation’s concern about sudden extinctionin the presence of a holy God is appeased through the eternalcovenant of priesthood granted to Aaron’s family (chap. 18). Heand the Levites, at the potential expense of their own lives and aspart of their priestly service, will be held accountable for keepingthe tabernacle pure of encroachers.

Evenafter the people’s significant rebellion and punishment, Godcontinues to prove his faithfulness to his word. Hope is restored forthe nation as the Abrahamic promises of blessing are rehearsed fromthe mouth of Balaam, a Mesopotamian seer. The Israelites will indeedone day be numerous (23:10), enjoy the presence of God (23:21), beblessed and protected (24:9), and have a kingly leader (24:17). Thiswonderful mountaintop experience of hope for the exodus generation istragically countered by an even greater event of apostasy in thesubsequent scene. Reminiscent of the incident of the golden calf,when pagan revelry in the camp had foiled Moses’ interactionwith God on Sinai, apostasy at the tabernacle undermines Balaam’soracles of covenant fulfillment. Fornication with Moabite women notonly joins the nation to a foreign god but also betrays God’sholiness at his place of dwelling. If not for the zeal of Aaron’sgrandson Phinehas, who puts an end to the sin, the ensuing plaguecould have finished the nation. For his righteous action, Phinehas isawarded an eternal priesthood and ensures a future for the nation andAaron’s priestly lineage.

Inchapter 26 a second census of fighting men indicates that the old,unbelieving exodus generation has officially died off (except forJoshua and Caleb), and God is proceeding with a new people. Goddispossesses the enemies of the new generation; reinstates the tribalboundaries of the land; reinstates rules concerning worship, service,and bloodshed; and places Joshua at the helm of leadership. Chapters26–36 mention no deaths or rebellions as the nationoptimistically ends its journey in Moab, just east of the promisedland.

Moses’Farewell (Deuteronomy)

Althoughone could reasonably move into the historical books at the end ofNumbers, much would be lost in overstepping Deuteronomy. Deuteronomypresents Moses’ farewell speeches as his final words to anation on the verge of Caanan. Moses’ speeches are best viewedas sermons motivating his people to embrace the Sinai covenant, lovetheir God, and choose life over death and blessings over cursings(30:19). Moses reviews the desert experience since Mount Horeb/Sinai(chaps. 1–4) and recapitulates God’s expectations forlawful living in the land (chaps. 5–26). The covenant code isrecorded on a scroll, is designated the “Book of the Law”(31:24–26), and is to be read and revered by the future king.Finally, Moses leads the nation in covenant renewal (chaps. 29–32)before the book finishes with an account of his death (chaps. 33–34),including tributes such as “since then, no prophet has risen inIsrael like Moses, whom the Lord knew face to face” (34:10).

Deuteronomyreflects that true covenant faithfulness is achieved from a rightheart for God. If there were any previous doubts about the essence ofcovenant keeping, Moses eliminates such in Deuteronomy with thefrequent use of emotive terms. Loving God involves committing to himalone and spurning idols and foreign gods. The Ten Commandments(chap. 5) are not a list of stale requirements; they reflect thegreat Shema with the words “Love the Lord your God with allyour heart and with all your soul and with all your strength. Thesecommandments that I give you today are to be upon your hearts”(6:5–6). God desires an unrivaled love from the nation, notcold and superficial religiosity.

Obedienceby the Israelites will incur material and spiritual blessing, whereasdisobedience ends in the loss of both. Although Moses stronglycommends covenant obedience, and the nation participates in acovenant-renewal ceremony (chap. 27), it is clear that in the futurethe Israelites will fail to uphold their covenant obligations andwill suffer the consequences (29:23; 30:1–4; 31:16–17).Yet Moses looks to a day when the command for circumcised hearts(10:16) will be fulfilled by the power of God himself (30:6). In thefuture a new king will arise from the nation (17:14–20) as wellas a prophet like Moses (18:15–22). Deuteronomy thusunderscores the extent of God’s own devotion to his patriarchalpromises despite the sinful nature of his people.

Formuch of the middle and end of the twentieth century, Deuteronomy hasreceived a significant amount of attention for its apparentresemblance in structure and content to ancient Hittite and Assyriantreaties. Scholars debate the extent of similarity, but it ispossible that Deuteronomy reflects a suzerain-vassal treaty formbetween Israel and God much like the common format between nations inthe ancient Near East. Although comparative investigation of thistype can be profitable for interpretation, it is prudent to beconservative when outlining direct parallels, since Deuteronomy isnot a legal document but rather a dramatic narrative of God’sredemptive interaction with the world.

There are few subjects more prominent in the Bible than sin;hardly a page can be found where sin is not mentioned, described, orportrayed. As the survey that follows demonstrates, sin is one of thedriving forces of the entire Bible.

Sinin the Bible

OldTestament.Sin enters the biblical story in Gen. 3. Despite God’scommandment to the contrary (2:16–17), Eve ate from the tree ofthe knowledge of good and evil at the prompting of the serpent. WhenAdam joined Eve in eating the fruit, their rebellion was complete.They attempted to cover their guilt and shame, but the fig leaveswere inadequate. God confronted them and was unimpressed with theirattempts to shift the blame. Judgment fell heavily on the serpent,Eve, and Adam; even creation itself was affected (3:17–18).

Inthe midst of judgment, God made it clear in two specific ways thatsin did not have the last word. First, God cryptically promised toput hostility between the offspring of the serpent and that of thewoman (Gen. 3:15). Although the serpent would inflict a severe blowupon the offspring of the woman, the offspring ofthe womanwould defeat the serpent. Second, God replaced the inadequatecovering of the fig leaves with animal skins (3:21). The implicationis that the death of the animal functioned as a substitute for Adamand Eve, covering their sin.

InGen. 4–11 the disastrous effects of sin and death are on fulldisplay. Not even the cataclysmic judgment of the flood was able toeradicate the wickedness of the human heart (6:5; 8:21). Humansgathered in rebellion at the tower of Babel in an effort to make aname for themselves and thwart God’s intention for them toscatter across the earth (11:1–9).

Inone sense, the rest of the OT hangs on this question: How will a holyGod satisfy his wrath against human sin and restore his relationshipwith human beings without compromising his justice? The short answeris: through Abraham and his offspring (Gen. 12:1–3), whoeventually multiplied into the nation of Israel. After God redeemedthem from their slavery in Egypt (Exod. 1–15), he brought themto Sinai to make a covenant with them that was predicated onobedience (19:5–6). A central component of this covenant wasthe sacrificial system (e.g., Lev. 1–7), which God provided asa means of dealing with sin. In addition to the regular sacrificesmade for sin throughout the year, God set apart one day a year toatone for Israel’s sins (Lev. 16). On this Day of Atonement thehigh priest took the blood of a goat into the holy of holies andsprinkled it on the mercy seat as a sin offering. Afterward he took asecond goat and confessed “all the iniquities of the people ofIsrael, and all their transgressions, all their sins, putting them onthe head of the goat, and sending it away into the wilderness....The goat shall bear on itself all their iniquities to a barrenregion; and the goat shall be set free in the wilderness” (Lev.16:21–22 NRSV). In order for the holy God to dwell with sinfulpeople, extensive provisions had to be made to enable fellowship.

Despitethese provisions, Israel repeatedly and persistently broke itscovenant with God. Even at the highest points of prosperity under thereign of David and his son Solomon, sin plagued God’s people,including the kings themselves. David committed adultery and murder(2Sam. 11:1–27). Solomon had hundreds of foreign wivesand concubines, who turned his heart away from Yahweh to other gods(1Kings 11:1–8). Once the nation split into two (Israeland Judah), sin and its consequences accelerated. Idolatry becamerampant. The result was exile from the land (Israel in 722 BC, Judahin 586 BC). But God refused to give up on his people. He promised toraise up a servant who would suffer for the sins of his people as aguilt offering (Isa. 52:13–53:12).

AfterGod’s people returned from exile, hopes remained high that thegreat prophetic promises, including the final remission of sins, wereat hand. But disillusionment quickly set in as the returnees remainedunder foreign oppression, the rebuilt temple was but a shell ofSolomon’s, and a Davidic king was nowhere to be found. Beforelong, God’s people were back to their old ways, turning awayfrom him. Even the priests, who were charged with the administrationof the sacrificial system dealing with the sin of the people, failedto properly carry out their duties (Mal. 1:6–2:9).

NewTestament.During the next four hundred years of prophetic silence, the longingfor God to finally put away the sins of his people grew. At last,when the conception and birth of Jesus were announced, it wasrevealed that he would “save his people from their sins”(Matt. 1:21). In the days before the public ministry of Jesus, Johnthe Baptist prepared the way for him by “preaching a baptism ofrepentance for the forgiveness of sins” (Luke 3:3). Whereasboth Adam and Israel were disobedient sons of God, Jesus proved to bethe obedient Son by his faithfulness to God in the face of temptation(Matt. 2:13–15; 4:1–11; 26:36–46; Luke 3:23–4:13;Rom. 5:12–21; Phil. 2:8; Heb. 5:8–10). He was also theSuffering Servant who gave his life as a ransom for many (Mark 10:45;cf. Isa. 52:13–53:12). On the cross Jesus experienced the wrathof God that God’s people rightly deserved for their sin. Withhis justice fully satisfied, God was free to forgive and justify allwho are identified with Christ by faith (Rom. 3:21–26). Whatneither the law nor the blood of bulls and goats could do, JesusChrist did with his own blood (Rom. 8:3–4; Heb. 9:1–10:18).

Afterhis resurrection and ascension, Jesus’ followers beganproclaiming the “good news” (gospel) of what Jesus didand calling to people, “Repent and be baptized, every one ofyou, in the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of your sins”(Acts 2:38). As people began to experience God’s forgiveness,they were so transformed that they forgave those who sinned againstthem (Matt. 6:12; 18:15–20; Col. 3:13). Although believerscontinue to struggle with sin in this life (Rom. 8:12–13; Gal.5:16–25), sin is no longer master over them (Rom. 6:1–23).The Holy Spirit empowers them to fight sin as they long for the newheaven and earth, where there will be no sin, no death, and no curse(Rom. 8:12–30; Rev. 21–22).

Aseven this very brief survey of the biblical story line from Genesisto Revelation shows, sin is a fundamental aspect of the Bible’splot. Sin generates the conflict that drives the biblical narrative;it is the fundamental “problem” that must be solved inorder for God’s purposes in creation to be completed.

Definitionand Terminology

Definitionof sin. Althoughno definition can capture completely the breadth and depth of theconcept of sin, it seems best to regard sin as a failure to conformto God’s law in thought, feeling, attitude, word, action,orientation, or nature. In this definition it must be remembered thatGod’s law is an expression of his perfect and holy character,so sin is not merely the violation of an impersonal law but rather isa personal offense against the Creator. Sin cannot be limited toactions. Desires (Exod. 20:17; Matt. 5:27–30), emotions (Gen.4:6–7; Matt. 5:21–26), and even our fallen nature ashuman beings (Ps. 51:5; Eph. 2:1–3) can be sinful as well.

Terminology.TheBible uses dozens of terms to speak of sin. Neatly classifying themis not easy, as there is significant overlap in the meaning and useof the various terms. Nonetheless, many of the terms fit in one ofthe following four categories.

1.Personal. Sin is an act of rebellion against God as the creator andruler of the universe. Rather than recognizing God’sself-revelation in nature and expressing gratitude, humankindfoolishly worships the creation rather than the Creator (Rom.1:19–23). The abundant love, grace, and mercy that God shows tohumans make their rebellion all the more stunning (Isa. 1:2–31).Another way of expressing the personal nature of sin is ungodlinessor impiety, which refers to lack of devotion to God (Ps. 35:16; Isa.9:17; 1Pet. 4:18).

2.Legal. A variety of words portray sin in terms drawn from thelawcourts. Words such as “transgression” and “trespass”picture sin as the violation of a specific command of God or thecrossing of a boundary that God has established (Num. 14:41–42;Rom. 4:7, 15). When individuals do things that are contrary to God’slaw, they are deemed unrighteous or unjust (Isa. 10:1; Matt. 5:45;Rom. 3:5). Breaking the covenant with God is described as violatinghis statutes and disobeying his laws (Isa. 24:5). The result isguilt, an objective legal status that is present whenever God’slaw is violated regardless of whether the individual subjectivelyfeels guilt.

3.Moral. In the most basic sense, sin is evil, the opposite of what isgood. Therefore, God’s people are to hate evil and love what isgood (Amos 5:14–15; Rom. 12:9). Similarly, Scripture contraststhe upright and the wicked (Prov. 11:11; 12:6; 14:11). One could alsoinclude here the term “iniquity,” which is used to speakof perversity or crookedness (Pss. 51:2; 78:38; Isa. 59:2). Frequentmention is also made of sexual immorality as an especially grievousdeparture from God’s ways (Num. 25:1; Rom. 1:26–27;1Cor. 5:1–11).

4.Cultic. In order for a person to approach a holy God, that individualhad to be in a state of purity before him. While a person couldbecome impure without necessarily sinning (e.g., a menstruating womanwas impure but not sinful), in some cases the term “impurity”clearly refers to a sinful state (Lev. 20:21; Isa. 1:25; Ezek.24:13). The same is true of the term “unclean.” Althoughit is frequently used in Leviticus to speak of ritual purity, inother places it clearly refers to sinful actions or states (Ps. 51:7;Prov. 20:9; Isa. 6:5; 64:6).

Metaphors

Inaddition to specific terms used for “sin,” the Bible usesseveral metaphors or images to describe it. The following four areamong the more prominent.

Missingthe mark.In both Hebrew and Greek, two of the most common words for “sin”have the sense of missing the mark. But this does not mean that sinis reduced to a mistake or an oversight. The point is not that aperson simply misses the mark of what God requires; instead, it isthat he or she is aiming for the wrong target altogether (Exod. 34:9;Deut. 9:18). Regardless of whether missing the mark is intentional ornot, the individual is still responsible (Lev. 4:2–31; Num.15:30).

Departingfrom the way.Sin as departing from God’s way is especially prominent in thewisdom literature. Contrasts are drawn between the way of therighteous and the way of the wicked (Ps. 1:1, 6; Prov. 4:11–19).Wisdom is pictured as a woman who summons people to walk in her ways,but fools ignore her and depart from her ways (Prov. 9:1–18).Those who do not walk in God’s ways are eventually destroyed bytheir own wickedness (Prov. 11:5; 12:26; 13:15).

Adultery.Since God’s relationship with his people is described as amarriage (Isa. 62:4–5; Ezek. 16:8–14; Eph. 5:25–32),it is not surprising that the Bible describes their unfaithfulness asadultery. The prophet Hosea’s marriage to an adulterous womanvividly portrays Israel’s unfaithfulness to Yahweh (Hos. 1–3).When the Israelites chase after other gods, Yahweh accuses them ofspiritual adultery in extremely graphic terms (Ezek. 16:15–52).When Christians join themselves to a prostitute or participate inidolatry, they too are engaged in spiritual adultery (1Cor.6:12–20; 10:1–22).

Slavery.Sin is portrayed as a power that enslaves. The prophets make it clearthat Israel’s bondage to foreign powers is in fact a picture ofits far greater enslavement to sin (Isa. 42:8; 43:4–7;49:1–12). Paul makes a similar point when he refers to thosewho do not know Christ as slaves to sin, unable to do anything thatpleases God (Rom. 6:1–23; 8:5–8). Sin is a cosmic powerthat is capable of using even the law to entrap people in its snare(Rom. 7:7–25).

Scopeand Consequences

Sindoes not travel alone; it brings a large collection of baggage alongwith it. Here we briefly examine its scope and consequences.

Scope.The stain of sin extends to every part of the created order. As aresult of Adam’s sin, the ground was cursed to resist humanefforts to cultivate it, producing thorns and thistles (Gen.3:17–18). The promised land is described as groaning under theweight of Israel’s sin and in need of Sabbath rest (2Chron.36:21; Jer. 12:4); Paul applies the same language to all creation aswell (Rom. 8:19–22).

Sinaffects every aspect of the individual: mind, heart, will, emotions,motives, actions, and nature (Gen. 6:5; 8:21; Jer. 17:9; Rom.3:9–18). Sometimes this reality is referred to as “totaldepravity.” This phrase means not that people are as sinful asthey could be but rather that every aspect of their lives is taintedby sin. As a descendant of Adam, every person enters the world as asinner who then sins (Rom. 5:12–21). Sin also pollutes societalstructures, corrupting culture, governments, nations, and economicmarkets, to name but a few.

Consequences.Since the two greatest commandments are to love God and to love one’sneighbor as oneself (Matt. 22:34–40), it makes sense that sinhas consequences on both the vertical and the horizontal level.Vertically, sin results in both physical and spiritual death (Gen.2:16–17; Rom. 5:12–14). It renders humanity guilty inGod’s court of law, turns us into God’s enemies, andsubjects us to God’s righteous wrath (Rom. 1:18; 3:19–20;5:6–11). On the horizontal level, sin causes conflict betweenindividuals and harms relationships of every kind. It breedsmistrust, jealousy, and selfishness that infect even the closestrelationships.

Conclusion

Nosubject is more unpleasant than sin. But a proper understanding ofsin is essential for understanding the gospel of Jesus Christ. As thePuritan Thomas Watson put it, “Until sin be bitter, Christ willnot be sweet.”

In the Bible, writing was carved into stone (Exod. 24:12;Josh. 8:32) or stone covered with plaster (Deut. 27:1–10),metal (Exod. 28:36), or wood (Num. 17:2–3; Ezek. 37:16). Claytablets or wooden tablets covered with wax were also used (Isa. 8:1;30:8; Hab. 2:2; Luke 1:63). However, while clay tablets were commonin Mesopotamia and among the Hittites in Anatolia, they were usedmore rarely in Israel or Egypt because of the accessibility ofpapyrus and parchment.

Writingimplements are mentioned occasionally in the Bible. A stylus—asharpened instrument fashioned from materials such as reed, bone, ormetal (e.g., Job 19:24; Jer. 17:1)—was used to carve lettersinto clay or wax. A sharpened reed could also be dipped in ink tofunction as a pen for writing on papyrus or parchment (Ps. 45:1; Isa.8:1; Matt. 5:18; Luke 16:17; 2John 13). A scribe would oftenneed additional implements to prepare the writing surface, to removeor rub out an error, to mix the ink, or to sharpen the stylus (cf.“writing kit” in Ezek. 9:2–3, 11; “scribe’sknife” in Jer. 36:23).

DuringOld and New Testament times, papyrus was one of the two most commontypes of writing material. The tall, marshy papyrus reed (Cyperuspapyrus) grew abundantly in Lower Egypt in ancient times (Job 8:11)and was used for baskets (Exod. 2:3), mats, ropes, sandals, and evenboats (Isa. 18:2). As early as 3000 BC, however, the papyrus reed wasmost known for making a kind of paper referred to simply as“papyrus.” Literary and archaeological evidencedemonstrates that papyrus was used extensively across the Near Eastwell into the first Christian millennium.

Papyrusstalks are typically the diameter of a human palm and roughlytriangular in shape. Sections were cut about a foot long. The innerfibrous pith was cut lengthwise into thin strips that were placedside by side on a board. A second layer of strips was placed at rightangles. The resulting “sheet” was pounded together. Plinythe Elder (Nat. 13.11–13) claimed that the Nile water glued thestrips together, but actually the crushed pulp did so. The driedsheets were trimmed to a standard size, varying by “factory,”typically ten inches high by eight inches wide.

Sheets(with the horizontal fibers on top) were glued side by side with thesheet on the left slightly lapping over the right, so that a scribe’spen slid “downhill” when moving onto the next sheet. Itwas not uncommon for a column of text to be on a joint (unlikeleather sheets, whose sewn joint would not hold text). The joinedsheets formed a roll (scroll) of standard length (about twelve feet)called a chartēs(2John 12), the typical unit of sale. It is estimated that inNT times a chartēs cost four denars (=approximately U.S.$450). Secretaries cut sheets off a chartēs or glued onadditional length as the task required,but the typical ancient letter, such as 3John, was about onesheet in length.

Theother most common type of writing material was leather parchment.Made chiefly from the skins of sheep or goats, parchment would beprepared by soaking, dehairing, scraping, and washing the hide. Theskin would be stretched on a frame and smoothed with a pumice stone.Vellum is a finer grade of parchment and is made from calfskin orkidskin. Sections of parchment also were sewn together to make aroll. Paul asked Timothy to bring him “the parchments”(2Tim. 4:13).

Papyrushad the advantage of being lightweight and durable, and perhaps lessexpensive, so it was often preferred over clay, wooden, metal, orstone tablets, or even parchment (at least until the third centuryAD). However, papyrus had two major disadvantages: it deterioratedrapidly in water and was almost exclusively from Egypt. Since ink waswater-soluble, all documents were routinely protected from moisture,so trade issues with Egypt may be to blame for major shifts toparchment. Unfortunately, only ancient papyri left in dry locationsin dry climates have survived, explaining why the bulk of knownpapyri are from the Egyptian desert.

Papermade of wood pulp or similar fibers was invented in China and was notadopted in the West until the eighth century or later.